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Anatomy & First Aid UHPAB 2025 Revision Guide
SECTION A: Objective Questions (20 marks)
💡 Study Tip: Anatomy questions require precise definitions. For first aid questions, remember the primary principles: Safety, ABCs, and "Do No Further Harm."
1
The study of the function and structure of the cells is
(b) Cytology
Cytology is the branch of biology that studies cell structure and function. The term comes from Greek "kytos" (cell) + "logos" (study). It includes cytogenetics (chromosomes), cytopathology (disease), and cell physiology. Histology studies tissues (groups of cells), physiology studies function of body systems, and immunology studies the immune system.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY: "Cytology = Cells, Histology = Tissues, Physiology = Functions, Anatomy = Structures"
2
Any part of the human body that is away from the middle line is said to be
(a) Lateral
Lateral means situated on, directed toward, or coming from the side - away from the midline (imaginary vertical line dividing body into equal halves). This is a fundamental anatomical directional term. Medial is toward the midline, distal is away from the trunk, superior is above.
📐 Anatomical Planes: Medial/lateral = horizontal axis, Superior/inferior = vertical axis, Proximal/distal = limb axis, Anterior/posterior = front/back
3
Which of the following cell organelles is directly associated with cell division?
(c) Centrioles
Centrioles are cylindrical structures made of microtubules that form the mitotic spindle during cell division. They duplicate during interphase and migrate to opposite poles of the cell to organize spindle fibers that pull chromosomes apart. This is essential for both mitosis and meiosis. Without centrioles, cell division cannot proceed correctly.
ORGANELLE FUNCTIONS: "CRGCL" - Centrioles = Cell division, Ribosomes = Protein synthesis, Golgi = Packaging, Chloroplasts = Photosynthesis, Lysosomes = Cleanup
4
Which of the following are the major structural parts of the human cell?
(a) Cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
These are the three major structural components of all eukaryotic cells. The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is the outer boundary, the nucleus is the control center containing genetic material, and the cytoplasm is the gel-like substance containing all organelles. All other options list specific organelles within the cytoplasm rather than the major structural divisions.
🔬 Cell Hierarchy: Cell → Major Parts (Membrane, Nucleus, Cytoplasm) → Organelles within Cytoplasm (ER, Golgi, Mitochondria, etc.)
5
Which of the following blood group is least common in the human race?
(d) AB
AB blood group is the rarest, occurring in about 4% of the global population. It's the least common because it requires inheritance of both A and B alleles. Blood group distribution varies by ethnicity: O is most common worldwide (~45%), followed by A (~40%), then B (~11%). AB is the universal plasma donor but can only receive AB red cells.
BLOOD GROUP FREQUENCY: "OAB" (In order: O > A > B > AB) or "ABO-Rare" - AB is Rarest
6
Which of the following valves is located between the right atrium and right ventricle?
(b) Tricuspid
The tricuspid valve has three cusps (anterior, posterior, septal) and separates the right atrium from right ventricle. It's also called the right atrioventricular (AV) valve. It prevents backflow of blood into the atrium during ventricular systole. The name "tricuspid" literally means "three cusps."
💓 Heart Valves: "Try Pulling My Aorta" - Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, Aortic (in order of blood flow)
7
The amount of blood ejected out of the heart per minute is referred to as the
(c) Cardiac output
Cardiac output (CO) = Stroke Volume (SV) × Heart Rate (HR). Normal adult CO is 4-8 L/min. It represents the total blood flow per minute from the ventricles. Stroke volume is amount per beat (70-100 mL), ejection fraction is percentage of blood ejected (55-70%), and blood pressure is the force exerted on vessel walls.
HEART OUTPUT FORMULA: "CO = SV × HR" - Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume × Heart Rate
8
Pulse in adults is commonly detected from the ................... artery.
(d) Radial
The radial artery at the wrist is the most common site for pulse assessment in adults. It's easily accessible, superficial, and allows for convenient counting of rate, rhythm, and character. Located on the thumb side of the wrist, it's the traditional site for taking pulse. Other sites are used in specific situations: carotid for CPR, femoral in infants, dorsalis pedis for peripheral circulation assessment.
📍 Pulse Points: "RCPFDP" - Radial, Carotid, Popliteal, Femoral, Dorsalis pedis, Posterior tibial
9
The gall bladder mainly functions to ............................. bile.
(a) Store
The gallbladder's primary function is to store and concentrate bile produced by the liver. It can store 30-50 mL of bile and concentrate it 5-10 fold by absorbing water and electrolytes. When fatty food enters the duodenum, cholecystokinin (CCK) triggers gallbladder contraction to release bile. The liver secretes bile, the gallbladder doesn't secrete, activate, or dilute it.
GALLBLADDER FUNCTION: "STORE-RELEASE" - Store bile → CCK signals → Release bile → Emulsify fats
10
Which of the following is the most superior part of the stomach?
(b) Fundus
The fundus is the dome-shaped uppermost portion of the stomach that lies above the level of the cardiac orifice (where esophagus enters). It contacts the left dome of the diaphragm and is the storage area for swallowed air. When filled with gas, it's visible on X-rays. The cardiac part is where the esophagus joins, pyloric region is distal outlet.
📐 Stomach Regions: "FUND-CARD-BODY-PYLORIC" from superior to inferior. Fundus is the "Fund" at top!
11
The S- shaped part of the colon is known as
(d) Sigmoid
The sigmoid colon is the S-shaped final portion of the colon that connects the descending colon to the rectum. Located in the pelvis, it's highly mobile and supported by the sigmoid mesocolon. Its shape allows for fecal storage and movement. The term "sigmoid" literally means "sigma-like" (Greek letter S). It's a common site of diverticulosis due to high pressure.
COLON PARTS: "A-T-D-S-R" - Ascending, Transverse, Descending, Sigmoid, Rectum
12
The function of osteoblasts is to
(c) Build new bones
Osteoblasts ("bone builders") are bone-forming cells derived from mesenchymal stem cells. They synthesize and secrete collagen matrix and calcium phosphate minerals to form new bone tissue. They work in teams to build bone at sites of growth, remodeling, and repair. Active osteoblasts appear cuboidal and line the bone surface. They eventually become trapped in matrix and differentiate into osteocytes.
BONE CELLS: "B-BO-C" - Blast = Build, Osteocyte = Maintain, Clast = Chew/Collapse
13
Which of the following is the primary component of the skeleton?
(c) Bones
Bones are the primary structural component of the skeleton, forming the rigid framework that supports the body, protects organs, and enables movement. The adult skeleton has 206 bones. Cartilage is present at joints and growth plates, synovial fluid lubricates joints, and ligaments connect bones to bones - but bones constitute the bulk and primary component of the skeletal system.
14
The largest muscle that forms the fleshy part of the buttocks is
(a) Gluteal (specifically gluteus maximus)
The gluteus maximus is the largest and most superficial of the three gluteal muscles (maximus, medius, minimus). It's the heaviest and most powerful muscle in the human body, forming the bulk of the buttock mass. It extends and externally rotates the hip, and is crucial for climbing stairs, rising from sitting, and maintaining upright posture. It's fleshy and prominent in humans due to bipedal locomotion.
GLUTEAL MUSCLES: "G-M-M" - Gluteus Maximus (largest), Medius (middle), Minimus (smallest)
15
Which of the following muscles is non-striated?
(c) Smooth
Smooth muscle is non-striated (no visible bands) and involuntary. It lacks the organized sarcomeres of skeletal and cardiac muscle. Found in walls of hollow organs (intestines, blood vessels, bladder, bronchi), it contracts slowly and rhythmically. Controlled by the autonomic nervous system and hormones. Under microscope, appears uniform without alternating light/dark bands.
MUSCLE TYPES: "CSS" - Cardiac (striated, involuntary), Skeletal (striated, voluntary), Smooth (non-striated, involuntary)
16
Which of the following is NOT the responsibility of a first aider? To
(b) Provide transport to hospital
Provision of transport to hospital is NOT a first aider's responsibility. This is the role of emergency medical services (ambulance) or arranged transport. First aiders provide on-scene care, assessment, and immediate treatment. Transporting a patient without proper equipment or training could worsen injuries and is legally risky. The focus is stabilizing and waiting for professional transport.
⚖️ Scope of Practice: First aiders provide immediate care, not definitive diagnosis or transport. Know your limits to avoid liability and prevent harm!
17
Clinical features of severe bleeding include
(c) Shock
Severe bleeding leads to hypovolemic shock - a life-threatening condition where blood loss >20% of total volume (≈1L in adult). Results in inadequate tissue perfusion, cellular hypoxia, and organ failure. Clinical signs include: tachycardia >100 bpm, hypotension <90 mmHg, pale/clammy skin, altered mental status, decreased urine output (<30 mL/hr), and respiratory distress. This is the hallmark sign of severe hemorrhage.
SHOCK SIGNS: "PASS-OUT" - Pale skin, Anxiety, Shallow breathing, Sweating, Obtunded, Unresponsive, Thready pulse
18
The primary principle of first aid is to
(b) Conserve the life
Conserving life is the FIRST and most important principle of first aid. All other principles are subordinate to this primary goal. The ABC approach (Airway, Breathing, Circulation) directly supports life conservation. Without life preserved, other goals (preventing deterioration, calming, treatment) become irrelevant. This is the foundation of all emergency care protocols.
FIRST AID PRINCIPLES: "L-P-T" - Life conservation (first), Prevent deterioration (second), Treat (third)
19
The fracture of the wrist is referred to as ............................... fracture.
(d) Colles'
Colles' fracture is a specific type of distal radius fracture with characteristic dorsal angulation (dinner fork deformity). It occurs from falling on outstretched hand (FOOSH injury). Named after Abraham Colles (1814). Common in osteoporotic elderly women. Includes fracture of radial styloid process with dorsal displacement and radial shortening.
🦴 Colles' vs Smith's: Colles' = dorsal angulation (fall forward), Smith's = volar angulation (fall backward)
20
The protective gear most commonly used by a first aider is
(a) Gloves
Gloves are the most basic and essential personal protective equipment (PPE) for first aiders, providing barrier protection against bloodborne pathogens (HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C) as per universal precautions. Nitrile gloves are preferred over latex due to allergy concerns. Gloves should be worn for any contact with blood, body fluids, or contaminated items. Aprons, masks, and boots are used for specific situations but gloves are universal.
PPE PRIORITY: "G-A-M-B" - Gloves (always), Apron, Mask, Boots (situation-dependent)
SECTION B: Fill in the Blank Spaces (10 marks)
21
The basic unit of life is called ........................................................
Cell
The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms. First described by Robert Hooke (1665). Can be prokaryotic (no nucleus) or eukaryotic (has nucleus). All cells arise from pre-existing cells (cell theory). Human body contains ~37 trillion cells of ~200 different types.
22
The epithelial cells responsible for mucus production are known as ........................................................
Goblet cells
Goblet cells are unicellular mucus-secreting glands found in columnar epithelium of respiratory and GI tracts. Shaped like goblets with nucleus at base and mucus-filled apical cytoplasm. Secrete mucin glycoproteins that form protective mucus layer. Named by Henle in 1837. Protect against pathogens, lubricate, and trap particles.
23
The process of red blood cell formation is called ........................................................
Erythropoiesis
Erythropoiesis occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue) under stimulation of erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys. Takes ~7 days from stem cell to mature RBC. Requires iron, vitamin B12, folate, and amino acids. Produces 2.5 million RBCs per second in adults. Process includes proerythroblast → basophilic → polychromatic → orthochromatic → reticulocyte → erythrocyte.
24
Movement of blood to the lungs for oxygenation and back to the heart is called ........................................................
Pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the low-pressure system (25/10 mmHg) that routes deoxygenated blood from right ventricle → pulmonary artery → lung capillaries (gas exchange) → pulmonary veins → left atrium. Only circulation where arteries carry deoxygenated blood and veins carry oxygenated blood. Flow rate = cardiac output (~5 L/min). Completes in ~20 seconds.
25
The movement that propels food from the oesophagus to the stomach is known as ........................................................
Peristalsis
Peristalsis is involuntary, wavelike muscular contraction of smooth muscle that moves bolus through digestive tract. Esophageal peristalsis is primary (swallowing initiates) and secondary (distension). Speed: 2-4 cm/sec. Takes 8-10 seconds for food to reach stomach. Coordinated by enteric nervous system and medulla oblongata. Also occurs in intestines and ureters.
26
A prominent bony projection is called ........................................................
Process or tuberosity
Bone processes are projections where muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach. Examples: spinous process of vertebrae, radial styloid process, tibial tuberosity. Tuberosity is large, rough projection (e.g., ischial tuberosity). Tubercle is smaller projection. Condyle is smooth rounded projection for articulation. All are types of bony projections.
27
The muscle of the upper arm commonly used for vaccination is called ........................................................
Deltoid
Deltoid muscle is the preferred site for intramuscular vaccinations (0.5-1 mL volume). Located lateral aspect of upper arm, forms rounded shoulder contour. Site: 3-5 cm below acromion process. Avoid using in children <12 months (small muscle) - use vastus lateralis instead. Provides good absorption. Minimal major nerves/vessels. Rotate sites if multiple injections needed.
28
The chamber of the heart responsible for pumping oxygenated blood to the rest of the body is called ........................................................
Left ventricle
Left ventricle is the thickest, most muscular heart chamber (10-15 mm wall thickness) that generates systemic blood pressure (120/80 mmHg). Pumps oxygenated blood through aortic valve into aorta for entire body. Works at high pressure compared to right ventricle (25/10 mmHg for lungs). Hypertrophy occurs in hypertension and aortic stenosis. Most common site of heart attack (STEMI).
29
The initial assistance given to a person who is injured is referred to as ........................................................
First aid
First aid is immediate, temporary care given to sick/injured person until professional medical help arrives. Goals: preserve life, prevent deterioration, promote recovery. Can be provided by trained laypersons. ABCs are core: Airway, Breathing, Circulation. Scope: bleeding control, wound care, fracture immobilization, CPR. Does NOT replace medical treatment. Legal protection through Good Samaritan laws in many countries.
30
The life saving technique performed to relieve an adult with choking is called ........................................................
Heimlich maneuver or abdominal thrusts
Heimlich maneuver is series of upward abdominal thrusts to force foreign object from airway. Stand behind patient, make fist below xiphoid process, grasp fist with other hand, pull sharply upward and inward. Repeat until object expelled or patient becomes unconscious. For infants: back blows and chest thrusts. Can be self-administered using chair back. Invented by Dr. Henry Heimlich (1974). Now called "abdominal thrusts" in some protocols.
SECTION B: Short Essay Questions (20 marks)
31
(a) State five (5) key features on the gross anatomy of the stomach. (5 marks)
(b) List five (5) functions of skeletal muscles. (5 marks)
(b) List five (5) functions of skeletal muscles. (5 marks)
(a) Gross Anatomy Features of Stomach:
1. Four distinct regions: Fundus (dome-shaped top), Body (main central part), Pyloric antrum (distal part), and Pylorus (narrow outlet to duodenum).
2. Two curvatures: Lesser curvature (concave, medial border) and greater curvature (convex, lateral border) where mesenteries attach.
3. Cardiac orifice: The opening where esophagus enters stomach, surrounded by cardiac sphincter to prevent reflux.
4. Rugae (internal folds): Longitudinal folds of mucosa and submucosa that flatten as stomach expands, allowing distensibility.
5. Thick muscular wall: Three layers of smooth muscle (longitudinal, circular, oblique) for powerful churning and mixing of food.
(b) Functions of Skeletal Muscles:
1. Movement: Contract to produce voluntary body movements by pulling on bones across joints (locomotion, manipulation).
2. Posture and stability: Maintain upright posture through continuous low-grade contraction (tonus) and stabilize joints.
3. Heat production: Contraction generates metabolic heat through ATP breakdown, essential for maintaining body temperature.
4. Protection: Some muscles form protective layers over internal organs (abdominal muscles protect viscera).
5. Circulation assistance: Contraction of limb muscles aids venous return to heart (muscle pump) and maintains blood flow.
32
(a) State four (4) organs of the lymphatic system. (4 marks)
(b) List six (6) signs and symptoms of shock. (6 marks)
(b) List six (6) signs and symptoms of shock. (6 marks)
(a) Lymphatic System Organs:
1. Lymph nodes: Small bean-shaped filters along lymphatic vessels containing macrophages and lymphocytes that remove pathogens and foreign particles.
2. Spleen: Largest lymphatic organ that filters blood, removes old RBCs, stores platelets, and produces lymphocytes for immune response.
3. Thymus gland: Located in mediastinum where T-lymphocytes mature and develop immunocompetence; most active in childhood.
4. Tonsils: Aggregates of lymphoid tissue (palatine, pharyngeal, lingual) in pharynx that trap pathogens entering through mouth/nose.
Bonus - Other organs: Bone marrow (produces lymphocytes), Peyer's patches (intestinal lymphoid tissue), appendix.
(b) Signs and Symptoms of Shock:
1. Pale, cool, clammy skin: Resulting from peripheral vasoconstriction as body shunts blood to vital organs (skin is first to be sacrificed).
2. Rapid, weak pulse (tachycardia >100 bpm): Compensatory mechanism to maintain cardiac output despite decreased blood volume.
3. Low blood pressure (hypotension <90 /60 mmHg): Late sign indicating decompensated shock; systolic drops below 90 when >30% blood volume lost.
4. Altered mental status (confusion, restlessness, anxiety): Cerebral hypoperfusion causes brain dysfunction; early sign of serious shock.
5. Rapid, shallow breathing (tachypnea >20/min): Compensatory respiratory alkalosis to counteract metabolic acidosis from tissue hypoxia.
6. Decreased urine output (<30 mL/hr oliguria): Kidneys conserve fluid due to poor perfusion; indicates organ dysfunction.
SECTION C: Long Essay Questions (50 marks)
33
(a) Describe the process of development of a long bone. (10 marks)
(b) Outline ten (10) actions performed during first aid management of a casualty with open fracture of tibia/fibula following a road traffic accident. (10 marks)
(c) State five (5) complications of fractures. (5 marks)
(b) Outline ten (10) actions performed during first aid management of a casualty with open fracture of tibia/fibula following a road traffic accident. (10 marks)
(c) State five (5) complications of fractures. (5 marks)
(a) Development of a Long Bone (Endochondral Ossification):
1. Formation of cartilage model: Mesenchymal cells condense and differentiate into chondroblasts, forming hyaline cartilage model of bone in early embryonic stage (week 6-8).
2. Development of primary ossification center: In diaphysis (shaft), chondrocytes hypertrophy and calcify matrix, triggering blood vessel invasion and osteoblast migration to form bone collar around week 9.
3. Secondary ossification centers form: Epiphyses (ends) develop secondary centers after birth (around 1 year for most bones), allowing longitudinal growth.
4. Formation of epiphyseal plates: Cartilage remains between diaphysis and epiphysis as epiphyseal (growth) plates, responsible for longitudinal bone growth during childhood/adolescence.
5. Bone remodeling: Osteoclasts resorb bone while osteoblasts form new bone, shaping the bone and adapting to mechanical stresses (Wolff's law).
6. Ossification of epiphyseal plates: At puberty, under influence of sex hormones, cartilage stops proliferating and plates ossify (close), ending longitudinal growth (age 16-25 depending on bone).
7. Articular cartilage formation: Hyaline cartilage persists on joint surfaces as articular cartilage for smooth movement and shock absorption.
As ossification advances, central cartilage is resorbed creating the medullary cavity filled with red bone marrow for hematopoiesis.
Dense connective tissue membrane forms outer covering, containing osteogenic cells for bone growth and repair, and Sharpey's fibers for ligament/tendon attachment.
By early adulthood, all cartilage is replaced by bone except articular surfaces and epiphyseal lines (scars where plates existed), forming mature long bone.
(b) First Aid Actions for Open Tibia/Fibula Fracture (RTA):
1. Ensure scene safety: Stop and check for hazards (traffic, fire, unstable vehicle) before approaching to prevent rescuer and casualty injury.
2. Wear appropriate PPE: Put on gloves immediately to protect against bloodborne pathogens from open wound and exposed tissues.
3. Assess airway, breathing, circulation (ABC): Check responsiveness, open airway, assess breathing and pulse. Open fractures can cause significant blood loss and shock - prioritize life-threatening issues.
4. Control severe bleeding with direct pressure: Apply sterile dressing or clean cloth and press firmly on wound. DO NOT push protruding bone back in. Elevate limb if possible.
5. Apply pressure bandage to wound: Secure dressing with roller bandage to maintain pressure while preparing for splinting. Check distal circulation.
6. Immobilize the limb with splint: Use rigid splint (board, cardboard) extending from above knee to below foot. Immobilize knee and ankle joints. Pad splint for comfort. Check circulation after splinting.
7. Cover exposed bone ends with sterile dressing: Prevent contamination and drying of tissues. Do NOT attempt to clean or manipulate bone ends.
8. Treat for shock: Lay casualty flat, elevate legs if no spinal injury, keep warm with blanket, reassure constantly, monitor vital signs every 5 minutes.
9. Reassess neurovascular status: Check movement, sensation, capillary refill, and pulse in foot before and after splinting. Document findings.
10. Arrange urgent evacuation: Call EMS immediately for rapid transport to hospital. Provide clear handover including mechanism, interventions, and neurovascular status.
(c) Complications of Fractures:
1. Infection (osteomyelitis): Open fractures allow bacteria to enter bone, causing deep infection that is difficult to treat and may require long-term antibiotics and surgical debridement.
2. Delayed/non-union: Failure of bone ends to heal properly within expected timeframe (6-8 weeks) due to poor blood supply, infection, or instability.
3. Compartment syndrome: Swelling within fascial compartments raises pressure, compressing vessels and nerves causing ischemia, pain, and potential permanent damage.
4. Fat embolism syndrome: Fat globules from bone marrow enter circulation and lodge in lungs/brain, causing respiratory distress, confusion, and can be fatal within 24-72 hours.
5. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT): Immobility following fracture promotes clot formation in deep veins, with risk of pulmonary embolism if clot dislodges.
⚠️ Compartment Syndrome Emergency: Pain out of proportion, pain on passive stretch, paresthesia, pallor, pulselessness (late sign) - requires immediate fasciotomy!
34
(a) Describe five (5) plasma components of blood. (10 marks)
(b) Describe the three (3) layers of the heart. (10 marks)
(c) State five (5) actions first aiders perform for a patient experiencing a heart attack. (5 marks)
(b) Describe the three (3) layers of the heart. (10 marks)
(c) State five (5) actions first aiders perform for a patient experiencing a heart attack. (5 marks)
(a) Plasma Components:
1. Water (90-92%): Acts as solvent for all other components and provides medium for transport of nutrients, wastes, hormones, and cells throughout the body.
2. Plasma proteins (6-8%): Include albumin (maintains osmotic pressure), globulins (alpha, beta, gamma - transport and immunity), and fibrinogen (blood clotting).
3. Electrolytes (0.9%): Ions like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate that maintain acid-base balance, membrane potentials, and osmotic pressure.
4. Nutrients: Glucose (primary energy source), amino acids, fatty acids, cholesterol, vitamins, and minerals absorbed from digestive tract and transported to tissues.
5. Wastes and hormones: Urea, creatinine, uric acid (excreted by kidneys), and endocrine hormones (thyroid hormone, insulin, cortisol) that regulate body functions.
(b) Three Layers of the Heart (Heart Wall):
1. Epicardium (visceral pericardium): Outermost layer of serous membrane covering heart surface. Composed of mesothelial cells and connective tissue with fat deposits (especially in coronary sulcus). Protects heart and reduces friction within pericardial cavity.
2. Myocardium (cardiac muscle layer): Middle, thickest layer responsible for cardiac contraction. Composed of cardiac muscle cells arranged in spiral bundles, supplied by coronary arteries. Thickness varies: thickest in left ventricle (10-15 mm) for high-pressure systemic pumping.
3. Endocardium: Innermost layer of squamous endothelial cells lining heart chambers and valves. Continuous with endothelium of blood vessels. Smooth surface allows laminar blood flow. Contains Purkinje fibers (conductive tissue) for rapid electrical transmission.
(c) First Aid Actions for Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction):
1. Call emergency services immediately: Time is muscle - activate EMS within 5 minutes of symptom onset for rapid intervention and potential thrombolysis/PCI.
2. Position patient in semi-Fowler's (45°): Reduces cardiac workload and eases breathing. Patient should be at rest, not walking or exerting.
3. Administer aspirin (300 mg chewable): Antiplatelet effect prevents further clot formation if no allergy or bleeding risk. Chewing ensures rapid absorption.
4. Monitor vital signs continuously: Check pulse, breathing, consciousness every 5 minutes. Watch for cardiac arrest - be ready to start CPR.
5. Administer nitroglycerin if prescribed: Sublingual nitro (0.4 mg) can vasodilate coronary arteries and relieve pain if patient has own prescription and BP is adequate (>90 systolic).
HEART ATTACK FIRST AID: "CALL-REST-ASPIRIN" - Call EMS, Rest patient, Aspirin (300 mg chew)
💔 CHEST PAIN ≠ HEART ATTACK ALWAYS: But treat as cardiac until proven otherwise. Look for pain radiating to arm/jaw, sweating, nausea, shortness of breath!
35
(a) State five (5) characteristics of synovial joints. (5 marks)
(b) Describe five (5) features of long bones. (10 marks)
(c) Explain five (5) principles of first aid. (5 marks)
(b) Describe five (5) features of long bones. (10 marks)
(c) Explain five (5) principles of first aid. (5 marks)
(a) Characteristics of Synovial Joints (Diarthroses):
1. Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage covers bone ends providing smooth, low-friction surface that reduces wear and absorbs shock during movement.
2. Joint cavity with synovial fluid: Capsule encloses a space filled with synovial fluid that lubricates, nourishes cartilage, and provides viscous damping.
3. Fibrous capsule: Double-layered capsule (outer fibrous layer for strength, inner synovial membrane for fluid secretion) encloses joint.
4. Free movement range: Classified by movement: uniaxial (hinge, pivot), biaxial (condyloid, saddle), multiaxial (ball-and-socket).
5. Ligaments and accessory structures: Ligaments connect bone-to-bone for stability; may have menisci (fibrocartilage pads), bursae (fluid sacs), and tendons for muscle attachment.
(b) Features of Long Bones:
1. Diaphysis (shaft): Hollow cylindrical middle portion made of thick compact bone for strength and weight-bearing. Contains medullary cavity with bone marrow.
2. Epiphyses (ends): Expanded ends made of spongy (cancellous) bone covered by thin compact bone. Articulate with other bones at synovial joints.
3. Metaphysis: Region between diaphysis and epiphysis containing epiphyseal plate (growth plate) in growing bones. Site of longitudinal bone growth.
4. Periosteum: Double-layered membrane covering outer surface (except articular cartilage). Outer fibrous layer contains blood vessels, nerves, and Sharpey's fibers; inner osteogenic layer has osteoblasts for growth and repair.
5. Bone marrow: Red marrow in ends produces blood cells (hematopoiesis) in children; converts to yellow marrow (fat storage) in adults. Present throughout medullary cavity initially.
6. Long length relative to width: Define long bones (e.g., femur, humerus, tibia). Typically longer than they are wide, providing leverage for movement and muscle attachment surfaces.
(c) Principles of First Aid:
1. Preserve life (primary principle): Immediate priority is to save life through rapid assessment and intervention for airway obstruction, severe bleeding, cardiac arrest (ABCs).
2. Prevent further harm: Protect the casualty from additional injury through safe handling, proper immobilization, and creating safe environment (remove from danger).
3. Prevent deterioration: Stabilize condition and minimize complications through shock prevention, wound dressing, fracture splinting, and maintaining body temperature.
4. Promote recovery: Provide comfort, reassurance, and appropriate positioning that facilitates healing and reduces anxiety while awaiting definitive care.
5. Seek professional help promptly: Activate emergency medical services early, provide accurate handover, and ensure rapid transport to appropriate medical facility.
🎯 Golden Hour: First hour after trauma is critical. Effective first aid within minutes can be the difference between life and death, full recovery vs disability.