Workplace Hazards in the Health Workers’ Environment
A workplace hazard is anything in the work environment that can cause injury, illness, damage or loss. In health care, the workplace is not only the ward: it includes the emergency department, ambulance, road, triage area, operating theatre, laboratory, kitchen, laundry, mortuary, stores, staff housing and community response site. A single event may combine a safety hazard, a health hazard and an environmental hazard—for example, a leaking oxygen cylinder beside an electrical fault in a crowded emergency bay.
This standalone lesson expands the supplied workplace-hazards presentation into detailed emergency-medicine notes. It teaches how to recognise hazards, distinguish hazard from risk, classify natural, human-made and technology-related threats, understand acute and chronic exposure, identify unsafe acts and unsafe conditions, assess routes of entry, choose controls in order of effectiveness, monitor results and learn from incidents. Safety is a system responsibility shared by employers, supervisors, health workers, students, contractors and patients.
By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define hazard, risk, exposure, incident, accident, near miss, unsafe act and unsafe condition.
- Differentiate safety, health and environmental hazard categories.
- Classify workplace hazards as natural, human-made and technology-related.
- Identify hazards in emergency, pre-hospital, hospital and support-service environments.
- Explain acute and chronic workplace hazards and the four major routes of entry for chemical and biological agents.
- Describe body defences and why they do not replace workplace controls.
- Conduct a practical hazard-identification and risk-assessment process.
- Apply elimination, substitution, isolation, engineering, administrative and PPE controls in the correct order.
- Evaluate whether controls are sufficient, protect everyone, create new risks or affect quality of care.
- Describe monitoring, review, incident investigation and safety-culture responsibilities.
- Use emergency scenarios to protect patients, responders, colleagues and the public.
1. Key definitions
| Term | Definition | Emergency-care example |
|---|---|---|
| Hazard | Anything or any condition with the potential to cause harm, injury, illness, damage or loss. | A wet floor, infectious blood, a moving ambulance or an unlabeled chemical. |
| Risk | The combination of the likelihood that harm will occur and the severity of the possible outcome. | A loose oxygen cylinder beside a patient trolley has a high risk of impact or pressure injury. |
| Exposure | Contact between a person and a hazard through a route such as inhalation, skin, eye, ingestion, injection or physical impact. | Breathing disinfectant vapour or being struck by a falling item. |
| Incident | An unplanned event that results in, or could have resulted in, harm or loss. | A monitor falls but no one is injured. |
| Accident | An incident that produces injury, illness, damage or another harmful outcome. | A worker fractures a wrist after slipping on a wet corridor. |
| Near miss | An event that could have caused harm but did not, often because of chance or timely intervention. | A mislabeled specimen is detected before it reaches the laboratory. |
| Unsafe act | A person’s action or omission that increases risk. | Recapping a needle, bypassing a safety guard or driving without a seat belt. |
| Unsafe condition | A physical or organisational condition that can cause harm. | Broken flooring, poor lighting, missing PPE or an overfilled sharps container. |
| Control | A measure that removes, reduces, isolates or manages exposure. | Engineering ventilation, training, a traffic plan or appropriate PPE. |
| Safety culture | Shared values, behaviour and systems that make prevention, reporting and learning normal. | Staff report a defect without fear and supervisors correct it promptly. |
2. Categories of workplace hazard
| Category | Meaning | Health-worker examples |
|---|---|---|
| Safety hazard | Anything capable of causing immediate physical injury. | Falls, vehicle collision, fire, electrical shock, machinery, violence and unsafe lifting. |
| Health hazard | An agent, substance, activity or condition that attacks body tissues or causes occupational illness. | Infectious agents, toxic chemicals, radiation, noise, vibration and stress. |
| Environmental hazard | Pollution, waste or a condition that degrades the workplace or surrounding environment. | Dust, smoke, gases, radioactivity, odours, unsafe wastewater or healthcare waste. |
| Ergonomic hazard | A mismatch between the task, equipment or workplace design and human capability. | Awkward patient handling, poorly designed workstations and repetitive tasks. |
| Psychosocial hazard | A work organisation or social factor that causes stress, violence, burnout or mental harm. | Long shifts, bullying, violence, inadequate staffing and moral injury. |
3. Natural, human-made and technology-related hazards
3.1 Natural hazards
Natural hazards arise from natural processes and may become workplace emergencies when they affect a facility, ambulance route or community response site. Examples include floods, lightning, wildfires, earthquakes, high winds, drought, heat waves, landslides, volcanic activity and disease outbreaks. A natural hazard becomes a disaster when exposure, vulnerability and limited capacity produce serious disruption and loss.
3.2 Human-made hazards
Human-made hazards involve human intent, error, negligence, conflict or failure of a social system. Examples include fire, crime, violence, arson, civil disorder, terrorism, war, unsafe waste dumping and deliberate contamination. Health workers may face them at facilities, during ambulance transport or in community emergencies.
3.3 Technology-related hazards
Technology-related hazards arise from industrial or technological conditions, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failure, equipment malfunction or human interaction with a system. Examples include oxygen-system failure, generator fire, power outage, monitor malfunction, radiation incident, information-system failure, chemical release and ambulance crash.
| Hazard class | Example in Uganda health care | Preparedness priority |
|---|---|---|
| Natural | Flooded access road, lightning at a rural outreach site or extreme heat during a mass gathering. | Weather monitoring, alternate routes, evacuation and continuity planning. |
| Human-made | Violence at triage, arson, civil disorder or deliberate contamination. | Security coordination, communication, safe withdrawal and incident command. |
| Technology-related | Generator failure, oxygen leak, electrical fire or ambulance equipment failure. | Maintenance, inspection, backup systems, drills and reporting. |
4. Hazards across the health-worker workplace
| Setting | Possible hazards | Who may be harmed |
|---|---|---|
| Emergency department | Infection, sharps, chemicals, violence, falls, noise, lifting, overcrowding, fire and electrical equipment. | Patients, EMTs, nurses, doctors, students, cleaners, attendants and visitors. |
| Ambulance and roadside care | Traffic, weather, vibration, lifting, violence, electricity, hazardous materials and poor visibility. | Crew, patient, driver, bystanders and receiving-facility staff. |
| Ward and theatre | Infection, medicines, radiation, anaesthetic gases, surgical smoke, equipment, fire and manual handling. | Clinical staff, patients, support workers and visitors. |
| Laboratory and pharmacy | Biological agents, chemicals, hazardous drugs, sharps, fire, compressed gases and equipment. | Laboratory staff, pharmacy workers, couriers, cleaners and waste handlers. |
| Stores and maintenance | Falls, heavy loads, machinery, electricity, chemicals, gases, fire and poor storage. | Stores staff, maintenance, contractors and anyone entering the area. |
| Laundry, kitchen and waste | Heat, steam, chemicals, contaminated linen, sharps, machinery, slips and waste exposure. | Cleaners, laundry and kitchen staff, waste handlers and supervisors. |
| Community outreach | Road hazards, animals, weather, unsafe water, violence, contaminated environments and limited communication. | Outreach team, community members and drivers. |
5. Acute and chronic workplace hazards
| Feature | Acute hazard/exposure | Chronic hazard/exposure |
|---|---|---|
| Timing | Harm appears rapidly after a single or short exposure. | Harm develops gradually after repeated or prolonged exposure. |
| Examples | Fall, burn, electric shock, vehicle crash, toxic splash or sudden violence. | Hearing loss, occupational asthma, back disorder, cancer or burnout. |
| Detection | Often obvious and linked to one event. | May be missed because symptoms are gradual or attributed to ordinary illness. |
| Control focus | Immediate scene safety, first aid, emergency response and incident reporting. | Exposure monitoring, health surveillance, system redesign and long-term prevention. |
6. Routes of entry and body defences
Chemical and biological hazards enter the body through four classic routes. Physical agents such as noise, vibration, radiation and heat may act through the eyes, skin, ears or whole body without entering through a chemical route.
| Route | Examples | Protective measure |
|---|---|---|
| Inhalation | Dust, smoke, gas, vapour, aerosol or infectious particles entering the lungs. | Eliminate source, ventilation, enclosure and hazard-appropriate respiratory protection. |
| Absorption | Chemical or biological material crossing intact or damaged skin. | Prevent contact, compatible gloves/clothing and prompt washing. |
| Ingestion | Contaminated food, drink, hands or objects entering the mouth. | No food/drink in work areas and strict hand hygiene. |
| Injection/direct entry | Needlestick, sharp, bite or high-pressure penetration through skin. | Sharps safety, safe tools, bite prevention and immediate reporting. |
The body has barriers and defences such as intact skin, mucous membranes, cough, tears, cilia, stomach acid, immune responses and behavioural avoidance. These defences can be overwhelmed by a large dose, damaged skin, a penetrating injury, a highly virulent organism or an agent that bypasses the barrier. They do not replace engineering and administrative controls.
7. Hazard, risk and exposure: the reasoning chain
- Hazard: identify the source of potential harm.
- Risk: estimate likelihood and severity for each exposed person.
- Exposure: describe who contacts the source, how, how often and for how long.
- Control: choose the most reliable intervention and verify that it works.
For example, a disinfectant is a hazard. The risk is high when it is concentrated, decanted into an unlabelled bottle, used in a closed room and handled by an untrained cleaner. Exposure occurs by skin, eyes and inhalation. Controls include substitution, closed dispensing, ventilation, training, labels and compatible PPE.
8. Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
| Unsafe act | Unsafe condition | How the system should respond |
|---|---|---|
| Recapping a used needle. | Sharps container is distant, overfilled or missing. | Stop the practice, place point-of-use containers and reinforce training. |
| Driving without a seat belt or speeding. | Ambulance has defective brakes or poor tyres. | Correct behaviour and remove defective vehicle from service. |
| Bypassing an equipment guard. | Guard is broken or replacement parts are unavailable. | Isolate equipment, repair and investigate why the guard was bypassed. |
| Walking through a wet floor without warning others. | Poor drainage, no signs or inadequate cleaning equipment. | Protect the area immediately and correct the housekeeping system. |
| Using chemical without reading the label. | Unlabelled or confusing containers and inaccessible SDS. | Stop use, identify product and improve chemical communication. |
| Working while exhausted and hiding symptoms. | Unsafe staffing, excessive shifts or punitive reporting culture. | Manage fatigue as a system risk and provide confidential support. |
Blaming only the last person who touched the hazard is incomplete. A good investigation asks why the unsafe act or unsafe condition was possible, tolerated or repeated.
9. Hazard identification in an emergency department
- Walk through the patient journey from ambulance arrival to discharge, admission, theatre or mortuary.
- Observe tasks rather than relying only on written procedures; real work may differ from the SOP.
- Ask staff, students, patients, cleaners and porters what causes near misses and injuries.
- Inspect floors, exits, lighting, alarms, electricity, oxygen, equipment brakes, sharps containers, chemical stores and waste routes.
- Consider peak crowding, night shifts, power outages, mass-casualty events and staff shortages.
- Include people who do not have authority to refuse unsafe work, including students, casual workers and contractors.
- Check whether controls work during actual emergency pressure, not only during an inspection.
10. Risk assessment process
| Step | Action | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Prepare | Define the area, task, people and information needed. | Assess patient lifting in the ambulance loading area. |
| 2. Identify hazards | List physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, psychosocial, environmental and security hazards. | Traffic, uneven ground, heavy patient, blood, violence and weather. |
| 3. Identify exposed people | Include workers, patients, visitors, contractors and the community. | Driver, crew, patient, bystander and receiving staff. |
| 4. Describe exposure | Record route, intensity, duration, frequency and existing controls. | Repeated lifting on night calls with limited lighting. |
| 5. Estimate risk | Consider likelihood and severity; prioritise high-consequence hazards. | Traffic collision has potentially catastrophic severity. |
| 6. Select controls | Use the hierarchy, starting with elimination and engineering measures. | Safe parking, traffic control, lifting aid and adequate staffing. |
| 7. Implement | Assign an owner, deadline, resources and verification method. | Fleet manager repairs brakes and signs off the test. |
| 8. Record and communicate | Document findings and tell affected workers. | Brief every shift, including students and drivers. |
| 9. Review | Reassess after change, incident, new information or control failure. | Review after a near miss or new ambulance model. |
11. Risk-rating considerations
| Consideration | Questions |
|---|---|
| Likelihood | How often is the hazard present? Has exposure occurred before? Are controls reliable? |
| Severity | Could the outcome be discomfort, injury, permanent disability, death, outbreak or environmental damage? |
| Number exposed | Is one worker, a whole team, many patients or the surrounding community at risk? |
| Vulnerability | Are children, pregnant workers, disabled workers, elderly patients or immunocompromised people exposed? |
| Duration/frequency | Is the exposure occasional, every shift, prolonged or cumulative? |
| Control reliability | Does the control work during a power failure, crowding, night shift or staff shortage? |
| Detectability | Will the hazard be noticed before harm, or can it silently accumulate? |
12. Hazard-control hierarchy
Controls should not be selected merely because they are familiar or cheap. The preferred order removes the hazard or isolates people from it before relying on human behaviour or PPE.
| Priority | Control | Health-facility example |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Elimination | Remove an unsafe trolley, discontinue an unnecessary hazardous chemical or eliminate a dangerous step. |
| 2 | Substitution | Replace a high-risk product, tool or process with a safer alternative. |
| 3 | Isolation | Separate the hazard by distance, restricted access, barrier, isolation room or traffic control. |
| 4 | Engineering controls | Guards, ventilation, alarms, safe sharps, interlocks, non-slip flooring, lifting aids and automatic systems. |
| 5 | Administrative controls | Training, SOPs, schedules, supervision, signage, checklists, maintenance and staffing. |
| 6 | PPE | Gloves, gown, goggles, respirator, hearing protection, safety shoes and high-visibility clothing. |
13. Testing whether a control is effective
When a hazard cannot be eliminated, controls should reduce the risk to an acceptable level without creating a new problem. A control is effective when it:
- Prevents the hazard from causing harm or reduces exposure sufficiently.
- Protects everyone who may be harmed, not only the person who reported it.
- Does not create a new hazard, such as a trip risk caused by a poorly routed cable.
- Does not create unacceptable environmental harm or transfer risk to another department.
- Works under real conditions, including emergencies, night work, crowding and power failure.
- Is maintained, understood, available and used consistently.
- Preserves safe patient care and does not encourage dangerous workarounds.
14. Safety management system at facility level
| Element | What it includes | Evidence of functioning |
|---|---|---|
| Leadership and policy | Written commitment, responsibilities, resources and objectives. | Signed policy, budget, safety committee and management review. |
| Hazard identification | Risk registers, inspections, worker consultation and task analysis. | Current risk assessments that reflect actual work. |
| Prevention and controls | Engineering, administrative and PPE controls. | Functional equipment, supplies and documented corrective action. |
| Training and competence | Induction, refresher training, drills and supervised practice. | Attendance, competency checks and observed safe performance. |
| Incident management | First aid, reporting, investigation, referral and corrective action. | Non-punitive reports, trends and completed actions. |
| Health surveillance | Exposure follow-up, occupational illness and fitness support. | Confidential records and referral pathway. |
| Emergency preparedness | Fire, chemical spill, outbreak, violence, power failure and mass-casualty plans. | Drills, supplies, communication and after-action reviews. |
| Monitoring and review | Indicators, audits, worker feedback and management evaluation. | Changes made after data and lessons learned. |
15. Workplace communication and safety culture
- Use a clear shift handover to identify hazards, equipment defects and patients requiring special precautions.
- Encourage speaking up using respectful, closed-loop communication.
- Display signs that are visible, understandable and placed at the point of risk.
- Provide information in languages and formats understood by staff, students and contractors.
- Use toolbox talks before unusual, high-risk or mass-casualty work.
- Report near misses because they reveal weak controls before someone is injured.
- Never ridicule a worker for stopping an unsafe task or requesting PPE.
- Separate blame from accountability: deliberate reckless conduct differs from a predictable system failure.
16. Monitoring and reviewing controls
Controls must be reviewed whenever the workplace changes. Review is required after new machinery, a change in process, a new hazard or new scientific information, a change in legislation, new employees, an accident, a near miss or evidence that the control is not working.
| Trigger | Why reassess? | Example |
|---|---|---|
| New equipment | New energy, maintenance or training hazards may be introduced. | New ventilator, generator, steriliser or ambulance. |
| Change in process | Different chemicals, workflow or patient volume alter exposure. | Introducing a new cleaning product or triage arrangement. |
| New workforce | New staff may not understand local hazards or controls. | Students, volunteers, contractors or transferred workers. |
| Incident/near miss | Shows that the current control failed or was not used. | Repeated falls near the same emergency-room entrance. |
| New information/law | Standards, evidence or legal duties may change. | Updated infection-control or chemical labelling guidance. |
| Community or environmental change | Weather, construction, outbreak or security conditions alter risk. | Flooded road or civil disorder near an ambulance route. |
17. Incident investigation and accident causation
- Provide immediate care, protect the scene and prevent further harm.
- Record what happened, when, where, who was present and what task was underway.
- Identify immediate causes such as a wet floor, missing guard, unsafe act or equipment failure.
- Look for underlying causes such as poor training, inadequate staffing, procurement problems, maintenance failure or unclear policy.
- Identify organisational causes such as weak leadership, poor reporting culture or insufficient resources.
- Recommend controls in the hierarchy rather than relying solely on reminders.
- Assign actions, deadlines and verification; share lessons without breaching confidentiality.
18. Emergency preparedness for workplace hazards
| Emergency | First priorities | Preparedness measures |
|---|---|---|
| Fire or explosion | Raise alarm, protect life, evacuate or isolate, call trained response. | Fire plan, drills, extinguishers, clear exits and oxygen-storage controls. |
| Chemical spill | Protect responders, restrict area, identify substance and call trained team. | SDS, spill kits, labels, PPE and trained responders. |
| Infectious outbreak | Recognise, separate, protect staff, notify and apply IPC measures. | Triage, PPE, isolation, vaccination and surveillance. |
| Violence/security incident | Withdraw, call security, protect patients and avoid escalation. | Alarm, safe room, communication plan and staff training. |
| Power or oxygen failure | Maintain life support with safe backup and escalate immediately. | Generator, cylinder checks, manual alternatives and maintenance. |
| Mass casualty | Incident command, scene safety, triage, traffic flow and resource allocation. | Drills, roles, communication, PPE and surge plans. |
19. Emergency department hazard controls
- Keep entrance and ambulance bays free of clutter, parked vehicles and uncontrolled crowds.
- Use triage to identify infection, violence, chemical contamination and urgent deterioration early.
- Maintain clear routes around resuscitation beds and ensure equipment can be moved without trailing cables.
- Keep sharps containers at point of care and remove them before overfilling.
- Secure oxygen cylinders, test emergency power and check suction, monitors and defibrillators.
- Separate clean supplies from contaminated equipment and maintain reliable waste segregation.
- Use safe patient-handling equipment and enough trained staff for transfers.
- Ensure security and clinical staff have a shared plan for aggressive or intoxicated patients.
- Provide rest, hydration and relief during prolonged major incidents.
20. Pre-hospital and ambulance workplace safety
| Risk area | Questions for the crew | Control |
|---|---|---|
| Scene safety | Is there traffic, fire, electricity, violence, unstable structure or hazardous material? | Size up, park safely, wear visibility clothing and request specialised support. |
| Patient contact | Could there be infection, chemical contamination, weapons or animals? | Use standard precautions, PPE and safe approach; do not enter a contaminated scene unprepared. |
| Vehicle movement | Are crew and patient secured? Is the driver fit and the vehicle maintained? | Seat belts, secure equipment, defensive driving and pre-trip inspection. |
| Lifting/loading | How heavy is the patient and what obstacles or slopes are present? | Plan, use aids, adequate staff and clear commands. |
| Handover/cleaning | Are hazards communicated and the ambulance decontaminated safely? | Structured handover, cleaning SOP, waste segregation and restocking. |
21. Health-worker responsibilities
- Follow training, SOPs and reasonable safety instructions.
- Use equipment and PPE correctly and report defects immediately.
- Do not deliberately misuse, remove or bypass protective devices.
- Report hazards, near misses, injuries, illness and unsafe staffing or equipment.
- Protect patients and colleagues from hazards created by personal actions.
- Participate in drills, risk assessments, safety committees and improvement activities.
- Stop and seek guidance when a task exceeds competence or available controls.
- Support a respectful, non-punitive reporting culture while remaining accountable for reckless behaviour.
22. Employer, supervisor and facility responsibilities
| Responsibility | Practical example |
|---|---|
| Safe premises | Sound floors, adequate lighting, safe access/exit, sanitation, ventilation and emergency routes. |
| Safe equipment | Procure, inspect, maintain and remove defective machines, vehicles and medical devices. |
| Information and training | Induction, refresher training, hazard communication, supervision and competency checks. |
| Protective systems | PPE, vaccination, first aid, fire protection, spill kits, waste systems and security. |
| Worker consultation | Safety representatives, committees, feedback and participation in risk assessment. |
| Health monitoring | Exposure follow-up, occupational-health referral and confidential records. |
| Incident learning | Investigation, corrective actions, communication and verification of closure. |
23. Uganda occupational-safety context
Uganda’s Occupational Safety and Health Act, 2006 places duties on employers and occupiers to protect workers, provide information, instruction, training and supervision, maintain safe premises and access, control dangerous substances, provide protective gear, support first aid and keep relevant records. The Act also provides for safety representatives and committees and includes provisions covering machinery, lifting equipment, hazardous materials and chemical safety. Health facilities should connect these legal duties with Ministry of Health guidance, professional standards, infection prevention, emergency preparedness and local SOPs.
24. Workplace safety scenarios
Three workers slip at the same entrance during night shifts. Investigation finds poor lighting, wet floors after cleaning and no warning sign. The correct response includes immediate cleaning and warning, improved drainage/lighting, revised cleaning timing, non-slip footwear, monitoring and review—not merely telling staff to walk carefully.
A patient trolley rolls while loading because the brake is faulty. The crew stops, protects the patient, reports the vehicle and removes it from service until repaired. A checklist, maintenance log and pre-trip brake test become part of the corrective action.
An intoxicated visitor threatens staff. The nurse uses the agreed de-escalation and security pathway, keeps an exit route, protects other patients and does not work alone in an unsafe space. Afterward the incident is documented and the security layout reviewed.
During a power outage, the team uses tested backup equipment, manual ventilation and a clear role allocation while maintenance and leadership are notified. The review checks generator capacity, battery charging, oxygen supply and staff training.
A facility introduces a concentrated disinfectant without updating training or SDS access. A cleaner develops wheeze. The process is paused, the worker receives assessment, the chemical risk is reassessed, and substitution/ventilation/label/PPE controls are introduced before restarting.
At a crash scene, responders see leaking fuel, unstable vehicles and live traffic. They establish scene command and traffic control first, request fire/rescue support and only then approach patients with appropriate PPE. The first arriving crew must not become additional casualties.
25. Common mistakes
- Confusing a hazard with the injury it may cause.
- Assuming a risk is low because an incident has not happened before.
- Focusing on PPE while ignoring broken equipment, poor design or unsafe staffing.
- Ignoring support workers, students, visitors and contractors during risk assessment.
- Failing to reassess after new machinery, new chemicals, new staff or an incident.
- Using warning signs as a substitute for repairing the hazard.
- Closing a report without checking whether the corrective action worked.
- Blaming a worker without investigating the system conditions that shaped the action.
- Continuing an unsafe task because the department is busy.
- Failing to communicate hazards during shift handover.
- Not preserving the scene or evidence after a serious incident.
- Ignoring fatigue, violence, stress and moral injury as workplace safety issues.
26. High-yield examination comparisons
| Concept | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Hazard vs risk | Hazard is potential source of harm; risk combines likelihood and severity. | Needle is a hazard; recapping it beside a patient is high risk. |
| Incident vs accident | Incident may or may not cause harm; accident causes injury, illness or damage. | Monitor falls without harm versus monitor striking a worker. |
| Unsafe act vs unsafe condition | Act is a person’s behaviour; condition is an environmental/system problem. | Speeding versus defective brakes. |
| Acute vs chronic | Acute appears quickly; chronic develops over repeated or prolonged exposure. | Burn versus occupational hearing loss. |
| Elimination vs PPE | Elimination removes exposure; PPE relies on correct human use. | Remove broken trolley versus wear gloves near it. |
| Reactive vs proactive safety | Reactive action follows injury; proactive action identifies and controls risk before harm. | Repair after a fall versus routine floor inspection. |
27. Revision questions
- Define hazard, risk, exposure, incident, accident and near miss.
- Differentiate a safety hazard from a health hazard.
- What is an environmental hazard in a health facility?
- Classify workplace hazards as natural, human-made and technology-related.
- Give five examples of hazards in an emergency department.
- Explain acute and chronic workplace hazards.
- List the four major routes of entry for chemical and biological hazards.
- Describe the body’s main barriers and explain their limitations.
- Differentiate an unsafe act from an unsafe condition.
- Explain why “be careful” is not a complete control measure.
- List the steps of workplace hazard identification and risk assessment.
- What factors influence the severity and likelihood of risk?
- Arrange the hierarchy of controls from most to least reliable.
- What makes a control effective?
- When should a risk assessment be reviewed?
- List the elements of a workplace safety management system.
- Why should near misses be reported?
- Explain the difference between reactive and proactive safety.
- What should a first-arriving EMT consider at a hazardous roadside scene?
- How can a facility protect cleaners, drivers, students and contractors?
- What are the responsibilities of a worker after identifying a hazard?
- What responsibilities do employers and supervisors have?
- Describe how to investigate a fall without blaming the victim.
- Explain the role of communication and safety culture.
- Using a scenario, show how a health worker identifies, controls, reports and reviews a workplace hazard.
28. Final workplace-safety checklist
- Look for hazards before beginning the task, not after an incident.
- Consider patients, colleagues, students, cleaners, drivers, visitors and the community.
- Assess likelihood, severity, duration, frequency, route and vulnerability.
- Control the source first; use PPE as the final layer, not the only layer.
- Keep emergency routes, equipment, floors, oxygen and electrical systems safe.
- Report hazards, near misses, incidents and symptoms early.
- Review controls after changes, new information and every significant event.
- Build a workplace where speaking up is expected and learning is continuous.