Health Service Management

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL 

Performance appraisal is the systematic, periodic and an impartial rating of an employee’s excellence in the matters pertaining to his present job and his potential for a better job. -Flippo

Performance appraisal is a process by which an employee’s contribution to the organization during a specified period of time is assessed.

Characteristics of an Effective Appraisal System

Characteristics of an Effective Appraisal System

  1. Reliability and Validity: The appraisal system should provide consistent and accurate information that can be defended in legal challenges. Appraisals should satisfy the conditions of reliability and validity i.e measuring what they are supposed to measure.
  2. Job Relatedness: The appraisal technique should measure performance and provide information on job-related activities/areas.
  3. Standardization: Appraisal forms, procedures, administration of techniques, ratings, etc., should be standardized to ensure fair and consistent evaluations.
  4. Practical Viability: The appraisal techniques should be feasible to administer, implement, and undertake continuously without excessive costs.
  5. Legal Sanction: Appraisals must comply with labor laws and regulations.
  6. Training to Appraisers: Appraisers should receive training on rating, documenting appraisals, conducting appraisal interviews, and avoiding rating errors.
  7. Open Communication: Employees should receive regular feedback on their performance and have the opportunity to discuss their appraisals with their managers.
  8. Employee Access to Results: Employees should have access to their appraisal results to understand their strengths and weaknesses and identify areas for improvement.
  9. Due Process: Formal procedures should be in place for employees to challenge inaccurate or unfair appraisal results and have their grievances addressed objectively.
  10. Focus on Employee Development: Performance appraisals should primarily aim to develop employees as valuable resources rather than being used as a punitive measure.

Objectives of Performance Appraisal

  • Compensation and Rewards: To determine fair compensation packages, wage structures, salary raises, and other rewards based on employee performance.
  • Talent Placement: To identify the strengths and weaknesses of employees and place them in roles that best match their capabilities and contribute to the organization’s success.
  • Employee Development: To assess an employee’s potential for growth and development, and to create opportunities for training and advancement.
  • Feedback and Communication: To provide employees with constructive feedback on their performance, helping them understand their strengths and areas for improvement.
  • Performance Improvement: To influence and improve employee work habits and behaviors, promoting a culture of continuous improvement.
  • Training and Development Programs: To evaluate the effectiveness of training and development programs and make necessary adjustments to enhance employee performance.
  • Promotion and Career Planning: To identify employees who are ready for promotion and to develop career paths that align with their goals and the organization’s needs.

Principles of Performance Appraisal.

  • It must be based on objectives and behaviorally oriented performance standards for the position the person is holding.
  • The objectives should be in behavioral terms.
  • The criteria should be well defined and should be known to staff who will be appraised.
  • The methods used for appraisal based on the objectives, standards and criteria framed for appraisal.
  •  It should be documented and discussed with the employee.

Methods/Techniques/Approaches/Tools of Performance Appraisal

Traditional Methods: Traditional Methods emphasize rating the individual’s personality traits, such as initiative, dependability, drive, creativity, integrity, intelligence, leadership potential, etc.

  1. Ranking Method: Employees are ranked against each other within a work group. Useful  in small organizations.
  2. Paired Comparison Method: Each employee is compared with every other employee, one at a time, and a tick mark is given to the better employee.
  3. Forced Distribution Method: Raters are forced to distribute ratings of overall performance into predetermined categories, such as excellent, good, average, below average, and poor.
  4. Grading Method: Employees are assigned grades based on predefined categories of abilities or performance. Such grades are very good, good, average, poor and very poor. Here the individual traits and characteristics are identified. 
  5. Checklist Method: Employees are evaluated based on answers to a series of questions related to their behavior and performance. Such as  Does he respect the superiors? Yes/No.
  6. Forced Choice Method: Raters are presented with groups of positive and negative statements and forced to choose one statement from each group to describe the employee.
  7. Critical Incident Method: Performance is evaluated based on specific incidents or events that have occurred. Such as Refused to cooperate with other employees. Got angry over work or with subordinates. Suggested a procedure to improve the quality of goods.
  8. Graphic Rating Scale Method: It is also known as linear rating scale. In this method, the printed appraisal form is used to appraise each employee. The form lists traits (such as quality and reliability) and a range of job performance characteristics (from unsatisfactory to outstanding) for each trait. 
  9. Field Review Method: Raters interview the employee’s superiors to collect information for the performance appraisal.
  10. Essay Evaluation: Nurse manager is required to describe the employee’s performance over the entire evaluation period by writing a narrative detailing the strength and weaknesses of the appraise.
  11. Peer Review: Which is also called Peer appraisal is a type of feedback where employees write a review of their fellow co-workers during performance evaluation
  12. Confidential Reports: Mostly used in government organizations. Old and traditional methods of evaluating employees. A confidential report is a descriptive report about the employee and generally prepared at the end of every year by the immediate superior.

Modern Methods: Modern Methods are more inclined towards job achievement and evaluation of work results.

  1. MBO: It means management by objectives and the performance is rated against the achievement of objectives stated by the management.
  2. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales  (BARS): BARS are systematically developed checklists using critical incidents in combination with graphic rating scales.
  3. 360-Degree Feedback Appraisal: Also known as multi-rater feedback. The evaluation feedback is taken from superiors, subordinates, peer-groups or team members, clients and self appraisal.
  4. Cost Accounting Method: Here, performance is evaluated from the monetary returns yields to his or her organization. Cost to keep employees, and benefit the organization derives is ascertained. Hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit analysis.

Process of Performance Appraisal

Step 1: Establish Performance Standards

  • Performance standards are set to ensure that employees are working towards achieving departmental and organizational goals.
  • Standards should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
  • Performance standards should include both observable behaviors and expected results.

Step 2: Communicate Performance Standards

  • Performance standards must be clearly communicated to employees so that they understand what is expected of them.
  • Communication should include information about any training or development opportunities that are available to help employees meet the standards.

Step 3: Measure Performance

  • Performance can be measured through a variety of methods, including observation, oral reports, and written reports.
  • It is important to focus on measuring what matters, rather than what is easy to measure.

Step 4: Compare Actual Performance to Performance Standards

  • In this step, the employee’s actual performance is compared to the performance standards.
  • Documentation should highlight specific actions and results.

Step 5: Discuss the Appraisal with the Employee

  • The appraisal discussion should be a two-way conversation, with the manager providing feedback and the employee having the opportunity to respond.
  • It is important to focus on the employee’s strengths and weaknesses, and to develop a plan for improvement.

Step 6: Implement Personnel Action

  • The final step in the appraisal process is to implement any necessary personnel actions, such as rewards or corrective action.
  • Corrective action should be taken in a timely manner, and should be designed to help the employee improve their performance.

Principal Obstacles to Effective Performance Appraisal

1. Lack of support from top management: The hospital’s senior leadership does not prioritize performance appraisal and does not provide adequate resources or training to managers to conduct effective appraisals.

2. Resistance on the part of evaluators: Time, paperwork, and observation: Performance appraisal requires a significant investment of time and effort from supervisors, who may have other pressing responsibilities.

3. Playing god: Supervisors may be uncomfortable with the responsibility of evaluating and judging the performance of their subordinates.

4. Lack of understanding: Supervisors may not fully understand the purpose and procedures of performance appraisal, which can lead to confusion and resistance.

5. Lack of skills: Supervisors may lack the necessary skills and training to conduct effective performance appraisals.

6.  Performance appraisal not perceived as being productive: The hospital’s performance appraisal process is seen as a bureaucratic exercise that does not lead to meaningful improvements in employee performance or patient care.

7.  Evaluation biases and rating errors: Supervisors may be biased in their evaluations of employees, leading to inaccurate and unfair ratings. This can be due to factors such as personal relationships, favoritism, or stereotypes.

8. Lack of clear, objective standards of performance: The hospital’s performance appraisal system lacks clear and objective standards for evaluating employee performance, which can lead to inconsistent and subjective ratings.

9. Failure to communicate purposes and results of performance appraisal to employees: The hospital does not effectively communicate the purposes and results of performance appraisals to employees, which can lead to confusion and resentment.

7. Lack of a suitable appraisal tool:  The hospital’s performance appraisal tool is not well-designed or appropriate for evaluating the specific roles and responsibilities of hospital employees.

8. Failure to police the appraisal procedure effectively:  The hospital does not have a system in place to monitor and ensure that performance appraisals are conducted fairly and consistently.

Biases during Appraisals.

1. First Impression (primacy effect):  A manager forms a positive impression of an employee based on their strong performance in a recent project, and this biases their overall evaluation of the employee’s performance, even if their performance in other areas is not as strong.

2. Halo Effect: A manager rates an employee highly in all areas of performance because they have a positive impression of the employee’s personality or appearance.

3. Horn Effect:  A manager rates an employee poorly in all areas of performance because they have a negative impression of the employee’s personality or appearance.

4. Excessive Stiffness or Lenience: A manager rates all employees very strictly because they believe that high standards are important, even if this means that some employees are unfairly penalized.

5. Central Tendency: A manager rates all employees as average performers because they are uncomfortable with giving high or low ratings.

6. Personal Biases: A manager rates an employee poorly because they dislike the employee’s personal style or beliefs.

7. Spillover Effect:  A manager rates an employee highly based on their strong performance in the past, even though their performance in the current appraisal period has been weaker.

8. Recency Effect: A manager rates an employee poorly based on their recent performance, even though their performance over the entire appraisal period has been strong.

To avoid biases during appraisals, managers should:

  • Be aware of their own biases and take steps to minimize their impact on their evaluations.
  • Use objective performance standards to evaluate employees.
  • Consider all of an employee’s performance, not just their most recent or most visible work.
  • Get input from multiple sources, such as peers, subordinates, and customers, to get a more complete picture of an employee’s performance.
  • Provide employees with feedback on their performance regularly, so that they can address any areas that need improvement.

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Job Analysis

Job Analysis

Job Analysis 

Job Analysis can be understood as the process of gathering information related to the specific job. 

OR

Job analysis refers to the process of obtaining information about jobs by determining what the duties, tasks, or activities of jobs are.

The information includes knowledge, skill, and ability, possessed by the incumbent, to perform the job effectively. It is helpful in the preparation of job description and job specification, therefore, HR managers use the data to develop job descriptions and job specifications that are the basis for recruitment, training, employee performance appraisal and career development.

Job description is a document indicating what a job covers, i.e. tasks, responsibilities, duties, powers and authorities, attached to a job.

 

The ultimate purpose of job analysis is to improve organizational performance and productivity. 

When is Job Analysis Carried out.

  1. New Organization: When an organization is newly established, job analysis is conducted to gather information about the jobs that need to be performed in order to achieve the organization’s goals.
  2. New Job Creation: When a new job is created in an existing organization, job analysis is conducted to determine the duties, responsibilities, and qualifications required for the new position.
  3. Job Changes: When a job is changed significantly due to changes in technology, methods, procedures, or systems, job analysis is conducted to update the job description and specification.
  4. Wage and Salary Administration: Before introducing a new wage and salary administration plan, job analysis is conducted to evaluate jobs and determine their relative worth.
  5. Job Inequities: When employees or managers feel that there are inequities between job demands and the remuneration it carries, job analysis is conducted to identify and address these inequities

Common techniques of job analysis include:

  • Questionnaire: A set of questions designed to gather information about the job from a current employee or expert.
  • Check List: A list of predefined job duties, tasks, and responsibilities that are checked off or rated by current employees or experts.
  • Individual Interview: A one-on-one conversation with a current employee or expert to gather detailed information about the job.
  • Observation: Direct observation of employees performing their tasks to gather information about the job’s physical demands, work environment, and interactions with others.
  • Group Interview: A discussion with a group of current employees or experts to gather information about the job from multiple perspectives.
  • Technical Conference: A meeting with experts in the field to gather information about the job’s technical aspects, industry trends, and future developments.
  • Diary/Self-Description/Self-Report: A written record kept by current employees describing their daily activities, tasks, and responsibilities.
  • Critical Incident: A detailed description of a specific event or situation that occurred on the job, highlighting the job’s critical tasks and behaviors.
  • Document Scanning: Reviewing existing documents, such as job descriptions, performance evaluations, and training materials, to gather information about the job.
Process of Job Analysis

The Process of Job Analysis

Step 1: Data Collection

  • Identify the sources from which you will collect data for job analysis. These sources can include job incumbents, supervisors, subject matter experts, and relevant documents.
  • Determine the methods you will use to collect data. Common methods include interviews, questionnaires, observations, and reviewing existing documentation.

Step 2: Job Data

  • Collect and compile the data obtained from the various sources and methods.
  • Analyze the job data to identify key information about the job, such as tasks, responsibilities, knowledge, skills, and abilities required.

Step 3: Job Description

  • Create a job description based on the job data. The job description should provide a detailed summary of the job’s purpose, essential functions, responsibilities, and reporting relationships.
  • The arrows from the job data should point towards the job description, indicating that the job data is used to inform the creation of the job description.

Step 4: Job Specifications

  • Develop job specifications based on the job data. Job specifications outline the qualifications, experience, and other attributes required for successful performance in the job.
  • The arrows from the job data should also point towards the job specifications, indicating that the job data is used to inform the creation of the job specifications.

Step 5: Human Resource Functions

  • Use the job description and job specifications to inform various human resource functions.
  • The arrows from the job description and job specifications should point towards the human resource functions, indicating that these documents are used to guide activities such as recruitment, selection, training, performance management, and compensation.

Benefits of Job Analysis to HRM Functions

Job analysis is a valuable tool for effective management of HR activities, ranging from HR planning to the maintenance of a safe and secure work environment and career planning. The information collected through job analysis serves a variety of HRM functions, as described below:

Strategic HR Planning:

  • Job analysis helps determine the number and type of personnel needed in the organization in the near future.
  • It provides job-related information necessary for HR planning, such as the number of positions required, the skills and qualifications needed, and the potential impact of changes in technology or business strategy.

Recruitment:

  • Job analysis helps in attracting and motivating job seekers to apply for organizational jobs by indicating the specific requirements of each job.
  • It provides information about the job duties, responsibilities, and qualifications, which can be used to develop targeted recruitment strategies.

Selection:

  • Job analysis is essential for selecting qualified candidates to fill job openings.
  • It provides information about the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics required for successful job performance, which can be used to develop selection criteria and assessments.

Training and Development:

  • Job analysis helps in designing and delivering effective training and development programs by identifying the skills and knowledge needed to perform specific jobs.
  • It also helps in identifying employees who need training and development interventions.

Job Evaluation:

  • Job analysis provides the information needed to evaluate jobs and determine their relative worth.
  • This information is used to establish wage and salary differentials and ensure that employees are compensated fairly.

Performance Appraisal:

  • Job analysis facilitates performance appraisal by providing clear-cut standards of performance for each job.
  • It helps managers to assess employee performance against expectations and provide feedback for improvement.

Wage and Salary Administration:

  • Job analysis helps in wage and salary administration by indicating the qualifications required for specific jobs and the risks and hazards involved in their performance.
  • This information is used to determine appropriate compensation levels and ensure that employees are paid fairly for their work.

Safety and Health:

  • Job analysis helps to identify hazardous conditions and unhealthy environmental factors in the workplace.
  • This information can be used to develop and implement safety and health measures to minimize the risk of accidents and injuries.

Career Planning:

  • Job analysis provides employees with a clear understanding of the opportunities for career growth and development within the organization.
  • This information can be used by employees and managers to make informed decisions about career paths and development goals.

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Recruitment and Selection

Recruitment and Selection

Recruitment and Selection 

Recruitment refers to the process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organization.(Edwin B.Flippo)

Recruitment can also be defined as the process of developing a pool of potential employees in accordance with a human resource plan which an organization can depend on when it needs additional employees.

When a decision is made to recruit, the following are done,

  • Job analysis is done which is the technique of studying a job to identify the skills, knowledge, experience and other requirements necessary to perform the job.
  • Job descriptions are descriptions of the management position, covering the Job title, location and grading, Brief explanation on the purpose of the job, List of duties and responsibilities, Terms and conditions of employment  & its position in the organization chart. 
  • Job/Hiring Specification describes the type of person who fits the job which will guide the recruitment officer to choose the best candidate. They include; Knowledge, skills and abilities, Educational qualifications, Work experience, Physical requirements of the job, if any, Personality requirements, where relevant
Sources for recruitment

Sources for recruitment

  1. Internal Recruitment;  Promotion from within(peer recruitment) and/or transfer of existing staff.
  2. External Recruitment;
  • Employment Agencies and Consultants: Executive recruiters (headhunters) specialize in finding qualified candidates for specific positions.
  • Campus Recruitment: Firms visit schools and colleges to conduct interviews and recruit candidates directly from educational institutions.
  • Employee Referrals: Employees may recommend their relatives, friends, or acquaintances for job vacancies within the company.
  • Unsolicited Applicants: Applicants who apply for jobs without the company advertising for vacancies. This can include individuals who submit their resumes through the company’s website or job boards/HR.
  • The Internet: Companies advertise job openings on their websites, social media platforms (such as LinkedIn, WhatsApp, and Facebook), and job boards.
  • Advertising in the Mass Media: Job vacancies are advertised through various mass media channels, including newspapers, magazines, posters, banners, and radio and television announcements.
Recruitment Process

Recruitment Process

The recruitment procedure involves the following steps:

  1. Vacancy Identification: Identifying the need for a new employee or replacement due to factors such as growth, turnover, or restructuring.
  2. Sourcing for Candidates: Advertising the job vacancy through various channels, such as job boards, company website, social media, and employee referrals.
  3. Collecting and Screening Applications: Receiving and reviewing applications from interested candidates. Screening applications to identify those that meet the minimum requirements and qualifications for the position.
  4. Appointment – Interviews, Selection & Placement: Scheduling interviews with shortlisted candidates to further assess their qualifications, skills, and fit for the role. Selecting the most suitable candidate based on the interview performance and other relevant factors. Extending a job offer to the selected candidate and negotiating the terms of employment.
  5. Induction: Providing the new employee with an orientation to the company, its culture, policies, and procedures. Introducing the new employee to their colleagues and work environment.
  6. Probation: Establishing a probationary period during which the new employee’s performance is evaluated to ensure they are meeting the company’s expectations and requirements.

Selection Process

The selection process involves a mutual decision between the organization and the candidate, where both parties assess each other’s suitability for the job. 

It Involves mutual decision whereby the organization decides whether or not to make a job offer and the candidate decides whether or not to accept the job.

Steps in the Selection Process

  1. Completed Job Application: Candidates submit a job application form that provides information about their desired position and relevant qualifications.
  2. Initial Screening: A quick evaluation of the applicant’s resume and application form is conducted to assess their initial suitability for the role.
  3. Testing: Applicants may be required to take tests to measure their job skills, abilities, and aptitude. These tests can provide insights into their potential to learn and perform the job effectively.
  4. Background Investigation: The organization verifies the accuracy and truthfulness of the information provided by the applicant on their resume and application form.
  5. In-Depth Selection Interview: Face-to-face interviews are conducted to explore the applicant’s personality, attitude, and fit for the job and the company culture.
  6. Physical Examination: Some roles may require a physical examination to assess the applicant’s physical fitness and overall health.
  7. Job Offer: If the applicant successfully passes all stages of the selection process, the organization extends a job offer, outlining the terms and conditions of employment.
Appointment

Appointment

An appointment is the act of formally selecting or assigning a person to a particular position or role. 

Appointment also refers to the process of hiring an individual to fill a specific job position within an organization.

Appointment Letter:

An appointment letter is a formal document issued by an organization to a selected candidate, confirming their appointment to a specific position. 

It serves as a written agreement between the employer and the employee, outlining the terms and conditions of employment.

The appointment letter should clearly outline the following important information:

  • Job Title: The specific title of the position that the candidate will hold.
  • Responsibilities: A detailed description of the duties and responsibilities associated with the role.
  • Duty Station: The location where the employee will be based to perform their job duties.
  • Job Grade: The classification or level of the position within the organization’s structure.
  • Benefits: A summary of the benefits and entitlements that come with the job, such as salary, leave allowances, medical insurance, and other perks.
  • Contract Duration: The length of the employment contract, whether it is a fixed-term, temporary, or permanent position.
  • Effective Date of Commencement: The date on which the employee is expected to start working in the role.

The newly appointed staff member should acknowledge and accept the terms and conditions of employment by signing the appointment letter and a formal employment contract.

Types of Appointment:
  1. Fixed-Term Contract: A short-term appointment with a specific duration, normally ranging from 1 to 2 years, with the possibility of renewal upon mutual agreement.
  2. Temporary Appointment: A short-term appointment with a maximum duration of 3 months, intended for specific projects or tasks that require temporary staffing.
  3. Permanent and Pensionable Appointment: A long-term appointment with no fixed end date, offered to employees in the civil service or other organizations with established pension schemes. This type of appointment is usually terminated only upon retirement or under specific circumstances.
Induction and Orientation

Induction and Orientation

Induction is an orientation programme aimed at introducing new employees and settling them in their new jobs.

Orientation and socialization programs are designed to help new employees fit into the organization smoothly and become productive members of the team.

These programs convey three types of information:

  1. General information about the daily routine activities: This includes information about the company’s work hours, dress code, break times, and other general policies and procedures.
  2. A review of the organization: This includes information about the company’s history, purpose, operations, products or services, and the expected contribution of the employee to the organization.
  3. Detailed presentation of the organization’s policies, rules, benefits, and brochure: This includes information about the company’s policies on topics such as workplace conduct, attendance, and leave, as well as information about the company’s benefits and perks.

Employee Concerns

New employees may have a number of concerns during the orientation and socialization process, including:

  • Anxiety about the new environment and how they will perform in their job.
  • Feelings of inadequacy, especially if they have less experience than other employees or if they are new to the industry.
  • Uncertainty about how to get along with other employees and how to fit into the company culture.
  • Personal and family problems that may affect their ability to adjust to the new job.

Solutions: Effective Socialization Programs: 

Effective socialization programs can help to address these concerns by providing information, introducing new employees to their colleagues, and encouraging them to ask questions. These programs may also include opportunities for new employees to shadow experienced employees, participate in team-building activities, and receive feedback on their performance.

  • Provide accurate and up-to-date information: New employees need to know what is expected of them and how to do their jobs effectively. Orientation programs should provide clear and concise information about the company’s policies, procedures, and goals.
  • Introduce new employees to their colleagues: New employees need to feel like they are part of a team. Orientation programs should provide opportunities for new employees to meet their colleagues and learn about their roles and responsibilities.
  • Encourage new employees to ask questions: New employees may have a lot of questions about their new jobs and the company. Orientation programs should encourage new employees to ask questions and provide them with the resources they need to find answers.
  • Provide opportunities for new employees to shadow experienced employees: Shadowing experienced employees can help new employees learn the ropes and get a better understanding of their roles. Orientation programs should provide opportunities for new employees to shadow experienced employees for a period of time.
  • Participate in team-building activities: Team-building activities can help new employees bond with their colleagues and feel like they are part of the team. Orientation programs should include team-building activities that are designed to help new employees get to know each other and work together effectively.
  • Receive feedback on their performance: New employees need to know how they are performing in their jobs. Orientation programs should provide opportunities for new employees to receive feedback on their performance from their supervisors and colleagues.

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HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

Human resources planning is the process by which an organization ensures that it has the right number and kind of people at the right place and at the right time, capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that help the organization achieve its overall objectives.

Human resources planning is planning for the future personnel needs of an organization required to meet its overall goals, taking into account both internal activities and factors in the external environment.

 

Human resources planning is the process of forecasting a firm’s future for, and supply of the right type of people in the right number.

Importance of Human Resource Planning

Importance of Human Resource Planning

1. Defining the future personnel need: Planning helps determine future personnel needs. Surplus and deficiency in staff strength result from the absence of or defective planning. Lack of systematic HRP has resulted in large-scale overstaffing in many public sector organizations.

2. Coping with changes: Fast changes in the business scene require formal, meticulous HRP. Health organizations must adapt to changes in medical technology, regulations, and patient demographics, necessitating strategic human resource planning.

3. Part of strategic planning: HR management must become an integral part of the strategic management process. In successful companies, there is no distinction between strategic planning and HRP. HR managers are important facilitators of the strategic planning process and are viewed as important contributors to carve the organization’s future.

4. Creating highly talented personnel: Jobs are becoming highly intellectual, requiring employees to possess higher levels of education and specialized skills. Manpower planning helps prevent shortages of such knowledgeable people.

5. International strategies: HRP plays a crucial role in supporting an organization’s international expansion strategy.. The HR department needs to fill key jobs with expatriates, motivate them, and compensate them. (Expatriates are individuals who live and work outside their home country. Sent abroad by their companies to work in foreign offices, subsidiaries, or on international projects.)

6. Foundation of personnel functions: Manpower planning provides essential information for designing and implementing personnel functions, such as recruitment, selection, personnel movement, and training and development. HR planning guides recruitment, selection, and training activities, ensuring that the workforce is well-prepared to meet the specific needs of the medical field.

7. Increasing investment in HR: An employee who gradually develops skills and abilities becomes a more valuable resource. Investing in training and development programs for healthcare professionals improves patient care and increases the overall value of the workforce in terms of skills, flexibility, and productivity.

Other Benefits:

a) Upper management perspective:  It enables leaders to understand how HR strategies align with overall business goals and objectives. This comprehensive view helps upper management make informed decisions that consider the impact on the workforce, talent acquisition, and employee development. 

b) Cost management: HR professionals can anticipate future labor needs and adjust staffing levels accordingly. This helps organizations avoid overstaffing or understaffing, which can lead to significant financial implications.

c) Diversity and inclusion: Creates a more inclusive work environment that attracts and retains top talent from all backgrounds. HRP also helps organizations develop targeted strategies to increase the representation of women and minority groups in leadership positions and to ensure that all employees have equal opportunities for growth and development.

d) Talent development: Ensures that organizations have the necessary talent to fill key leadership positions and drive future success.HR professionals can identify high-potential employees and provide them with challenging assignments that align with their career goals and the organization’s strategic objectives. 

e) Local labor market impact: Helps to identify potential challenges and opportunities related to the availability and quality of talent in the local area.  This information enables organizations to make informed decisions about hiring, training, and workforce development strategies to attract and retain top talent hence reduce turnover.

Human Resource Planning Process Or Steps Of HR Planning Human resource planning is a process through which the company anticipates future business and environmental forces. Human resources planning assesses the manpower requirement for future periods of time. It attempts to provide sufficient manpower required to perform organizational activities. HR planning is a continuous process which starts with identification of HR objectives, moves through analysis of manpower resources and ends at appraisal of HR planning. Following are the major steps involved in human resource planning: Assessing Human Resources: The assessment of HR begins with environmental analysis, under which the external and internal (objectives, resources and structure) are analyzed to assess the currently available HR inventory level. Analyze internal and external factors to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Conduct a comprehensive job analysis to understand the skills and competencies required for each role. Inventory current workforce skills and qualifications. Demand Forecasting: HR forecasting is the process of estimating demand for and supply of HR in an organization. Demand forecasting is a process of determining future needs for HR in terms of quantity and quality. It is done to meet the future personnel requirements of the organization to achieve the desired level of output. External factors - competition, laws & regulation, economic climate, changes in technology and social factors. Internal factors - budget constraints, production levels, new products & services, organizational structure & employee separations Estimate future demand for healthcare professionals based on factors such as patient volume, service expansion, and technological advancements. Consider demographic trends, such as an aging population, which may increase demand for certain specialties. Supply Forecasting: It is concerned with the estimation of supply of manpower given the analysis of current resource and future availability of human resource in the organization. It estimates the future sources of HR that are likely to be available from within and outside the organization. Assess internal sources of supply, such as current employees who can be promoted or transferred. Explore external sources, such as recruitment from educational institutions or experienced professionals. Consider factors like labor market conditions and competition for talent. Matching Demand and Supply: The matching process refers to bringing demand and supply in an equilibrium position so that shortages and over staffing positions will be solved. In case of shortages an organization has to hire a more required number of employees. Alternatively, in the case of over staffing it has to reduce the level of existing employment. Compare the forecasted demand and supply to identify potential gaps or surpluses. Develop strategies to address shortages, such as targeted recruitment, training programs, or flexible work arrangements. Manage surpluses through attrition, redeployment, or outplacement. Action Plan: Action plan is the last phase of human resource planning which is concerned with surplus and shortages of human resource. Under it, the HR plan is executed through the designation of different HR activities. The major activities which are required to execute the HR plan are recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, socialization etc. Implement the plan through specific HR activities, such as job postings, interviews, onboarding, and performance management. Regularly monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the HR plan and make adjustments as needed. Finally, this step is followed by control and evaluation of performance of HR to check whether the HR planning matches the HR objectives and policies. This action plan should be updated according to change in time and conditions. HR Plan Implementation Implementation requires converting an HR plan into action. Recruitment, Selection & Placement Training & Development Retraining & Redeployment Retention Plan Downsizing Plan Succession Plan Control & Evaluation Are Budgets, Targets & Standards met? Responsibilities for Implementation & Control Reports for Monitoring HR Plan

Human Resource Planning Process Or Steps Of HR Planning

Human resource planning is a process through which the company anticipates future business and environmental forces. Human resources planning assesses the manpower requirement for future periods of time. It attempts to provide sufficient manpower required to perform organizational activities.

 HR planning is a continuous process which starts with identification of HR objectives, moves through analysis of manpower resources and ends at appraisal of HR planning. Following are the major steps involved in human resource planning:

1. Assessing Human Resources:  The assessment of HR begins with environmental analysis, under which the external and internal (objectives, resources and structure) are analyzed to assess the currently available HR inventory level.

  • Analyze internal and external factors to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
  • Conduct a comprehensive job analysis to understand the skills and competencies required for each role.
  • Inventory current workforce skills and qualifications.

2. Demand Forecasting: HR forecasting is the process of estimating demand for and supply of HR in an organization. Demand forecasting is a process of determining future needs for HR in terms of quantity and quality. It is done to meet the future personnel requirements of the organization to achieve the desired level of output. External factors – competition, laws & regulation, economic climate, changes in technology and social factors. Internal factors – budget constraints, production levels, new products & services, organizational structure & employee separations

  • Estimate future demand for healthcare professionals based on factors such as patient volume, service expansion, and technological advancements.
  • Consider demographic trends, such as an aging population, which may increase demand for certain specialties.

3. Supply Forecasting: It is concerned with the estimation of supply of manpower given the analysis of current resource and future availability of human resource in the organization. It estimates the future sources of HR that are likely to be available from within and outside the organization.

  • Assess internal sources of supply, such as current employees who can be promoted or transferred.
  • Explore external sources, such as recruitment from educational institutions or experienced professionals.
  • Consider factors like labor market conditions and competition for talent.

4. Matching Demand and Supply: The matching process refers to bringing demand and supply in an equilibrium position so that shortages and over staffing positions will be solved. In case of shortages an organization has to hire a more required number of employees. Alternatively, in the case of over staffing it has to reduce the level of existing employment. 

  • Compare the forecasted demand and supply to identify potential gaps or surpluses.
  • Develop strategies to address shortages, such as targeted recruitment, training programs, or flexible work arrangements.
  • Manage surpluses through attrition, redeployment, or outplacement.

5. Action Plan: Action plan is the last phase of human resource planning which is concerned with surplus and shortages of human resource. Under it, the HR plan is executed through the designation of different HR activities. 

  • The major activities which are required to execute the HR plan are recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, socialization etc. 
  • Implement the plan through specific HR activities, such as job postings, interviews, onboarding, and performance management.
  • Regularly monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the HR plan and make adjustments as needed.

Finally, this step is followed by control and evaluation of performance of HR to check whether the HR planning matches the HR objectives and policies. This action plan should be updated according to change in time and conditions.

HR Plan Implementation

Implementation requires converting an HR plan into action.

  1. Recruitment, Selection & Placement
  2. Training & Development
  3. Retraining & Redeployment
  4. Retention Plan
  5. Downsizing Plan
  6. Succession Plan

Control & Evaluation

  1. Are Budgets, Targets & Standards met?
  2. Responsibilities for Implementation & Control
  3. Reports for Monitoring HR Plan

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HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  

Human Resource Management is a management function that deals with recruitment, placement, training, development of organization members.

Human Resource Management is a process of staffing the organization and sustaining high employee performance.

Human Resource Management can also be defined as all the practices, systems and procedures implemented to attract, acquire, develop and manage human resources to achieve the goals of an organization.

Simply it is managing the employment relationship.

Human Resource Management has been seen by some scholars as having the purpose of ensuring that the employees of a company are used in such a way that the employer obtains the greatest possible benefit from their abilities and in return the employees obtain both material and psychological rewards from their work.

Any organization will exist to either make a profit or offer a service or goods

This is achieved by using the factors of production, namely:

  • Human resources
  • Land
  • Capital
  • Entrepreneurship

Of all these, HR is definitely the most important since all the others depend on it.

Human Resource Management Involves:  Acquiring the right number of employees for the organization,  Deploying them to their right places,  Directing them from in their day-to-day operations,  Ensuring that they keep on the right track for which they were recruited.

Concepts of Human Resource Management

  1. Strategic integration: this refers to the integration of HRM policies into organization-wide strategic plans such as; selection, training, and development into a coherent whole. This strategic approach requires top management to assume full responsibility for seeing that there is strategic fit between business and HR strategies. In hospitals, HR professionals must ensure that their policies and practices are aligned with the hospital’s overall strategic plan. This means that HR must work closely with hospital leadership to understand the hospital’s goals and objectives, and to develop HR strategies that will support those goals. For example, if a hospital is planning to expand its services, HR will need to develop a plan to recruit and hire the necessary staff.
  2. Commitment: This refers to voluntary identification with the organizational goals which (David Gest) terms a strong belief in and acceptance of an organization’s goals and values. HR professionals in hospitals must also promote employee commitment to the organization. This can be done by creating a positive work environment, providing opportunities for professional development, and recognizing and rewarding employee achievements. When employees are committed to their organization, they are more likely to be productive and to provide high-quality patient care.
  3. Flexibility: This comprises functional and numerical flexibility. Functional flexibility encompasses multi-skilling. Numerical flexibility includes ; downsizing and performance related pay. Hospitals are constantly changing, so HR professionals must be flexible and adaptable. They must be able to respond to changes in the healthcare industry, such as new regulations or advances in technology. HR professionals must also be able to manage a diverse workforce, with employees from different backgrounds and cultures.
  4. Quality: It includes behaviors and practices which ensure quality and productivity at all levels. HR professionals in hospitals play a key role in ensuring the quality of patient care. They do this by recruiting and hiring qualified staff, developing and implementing training programs, and managing employee performance. HR professionals also work to create a positive work environment that supports high-quality patient care.
  5. Mutuality: It among others connotes mutuality of purpose, intent and ownership of an organization’s core values. HR professionals in hospitals must promote mutuality between the organization and its employees. This means that HR must work to create a shared understanding of the organization’s goals and values, and to ensure that employees feel like they are part of the team. When there is mutuality, employees are more likely to be engaged and productive.
  6. Coherence: This refers to the development of a mutually reinforcing, supporting, interactive and interrelated set of human resources and employment policies and programmes that; Jointly contribute to the organizational strategies. Match resources to the organizational needs. Foster improvements in performance that lead to an organization’s competitive advantage. HR professionals in hospitals must ensure that their policies and practices are coherent and consistent. This means that all of the HR functions, such as recruiting, hiring, training, and performance management, must work together to support the hospital’s overall goals and objectives. When there is coherence, HR is more effective and efficient.
Functions of Human Resource Management

Functions of Human Resource Management

The functions of HRM may broadly be classified into two categories:

  1. Managerial Functions of HRM: Managerial functions refer to the high-level responsibilities that HR managers perform as part of the overall management of the organization. These functions involve planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the human resources within the HR department itself.
  2. Operative Functions of HRM: Operative functions in HRM involve specific, day-to-day activities related to managing human resources. These functions are more focused on the execution and implementation of HR policies and procedures. The operative functions are categorized into procurement, development, motivation and compensation, maintenance, and integration.
Managerial Functions of HRM
  1. Planning: This involves planning in advance what quantity of human resources is needed for adequate performance of the tasks at hand. Determining the future course of action to achieve desired results, including personnel program planning for recruitment, selection, and training.
  2. Organizing: This involves deployment of the workers by assigning them to their tasks and departments. This is done after giving them the relevant tools for the tasks. Proper grouping of personnel activities, assigning tasks, and delegating authority to create a structural framework.
  3. Directing/Leading: This involves the HR managers providing effective leadership that encourages the workers to be more productive. Thus the managers must; Monitor the workers, Handle or minimize conflicts amongst the workers, Ensure both downward and vertical communication within the organisation. Supervising and guiding personnel, involving motivation, leadership, and addressing employee concerns.
  4. Controlling: This involves the regulation of activities to ensure that every thing happens as earlier planned, otherwise corrective measures should be instituted through training, promotion, demotion, dismissal, disciplinary action etc. 
Operative Functions of HRM

Also called HRM Responsibilities/Practices

1. Procurement Function:

  • Job Analysis: Collecting information about specific job operations and responsibilities.
  • Human Resources Planning: Determining and ensuring an adequate number of qualified personnel for organizational needs.
  • Recruitment: Searching for and stimulating prospective employees to apply for jobs.
  • Selection: Ascertaining qualifications, experience, skills, and knowledge of applicants for job suitability.
  • Placement: Ensuring a perfect fit by matching qualifications, experience, and skills with the job.
  • Induction and Orientation: Rehabilitating new employees, introducing practices, policies, and organizational principles.

2. Development in HRM:

  • Training: Continuous learning of skills, knowledge, abilities, and attitudes to meet organizational goals.
  • Executive Development: Systematic development of managerial skills through appropriate programs.
  • Career Planning and Development: Planning and implementing career plans, including succession planning for executive positions.
  • Human Resource Development: Aims at developing the total organization, creating a climate for individual and organizational goal achievement.

3. Motivation and Compensation:

  • Job Design: Organizing tasks and responsibilities to create a productive unit of work.
  • Work Scheduling: Structuring work to motivate employees through various methods.
  • Motivation: Inspiring people through intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
  • Job Evaluation: Determining the value of jobs within the organization.
  • Performance Appraisal: Evaluating and appraising employees’ job performance.
  • Compensation Administration: Divising how much an employee should be paid.
  • Incentives and Benefits: Offering rewards and services, including fringe benefits, to all employees.

4. Maintenance Function of HRM:

  • Health and Safety: Enforcing safety and health standards to protect employees.
  • Employee Welfare: Offering services and facilities for employees’ well-being.
  • Social Security Measures: Providing benefits like compensation, maternity benefits, and retirement benefits.

5. Integration Function of HRM:

  • Grievance Redressal: Addressing complaints and grievances promptly.
  • Discipline: Ensuring adherence to rules, regulations, and procedures for goal attainment.
  • Teams and Teamwork: Encouraging teamwork and self-managed teams.
  • Collective Bargaining: Negotiating labor contracts between management and unions.
  • Employee Participation and Empowerment: Sharing decision-making power with employees.
  • Industrial Relations: Maintaining harmonious relations between labor and management.

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Directing IN MANAGEMENT

DIRECTING IN MANAGEMENT

Directing and Leading

Directing involves supervising or leading the workers to accomplish the goals of the organization. 

Directing is the process of getting the organization’s work done. 

Directing is a management function performed by top-level management to achieve the objectives of an organization. It is considered the life-spark of the organization because it sets in motion the actions of people.

Planning, organizing, and staffing are mere preparations for doing the work, and directing is the process of getting the work done.

 

In many organizations, directing involves marking assignments, assisting workers to carry out assignments, interpreting organizational policies and informing workers of how well they are performing. To effectively carry out this function, managers must have leadership skills which include; Effective communication, delegation, coaching, conflict resolution, motivation.

Importance of Directing

Importance of Directing

  1. Initiates action: Directing is the function that initiates action in a hospital. It is the process of setting goals, assigning tasks, and providing the necessary resources to employees so that they can begin working towards those goals.
  2. Creates a motivated workplace: A motivated workforce is essential for any organization, but it is especially important in a hospital, where the quality of patient care depends on the dedication and commitment of the staff. Directing can help to create a motivated workplace by providing employees with clear goals, providing them with the necessary resources to do their jobs effectively, and recognizing and rewarding their achievements.
  3. Provides guidance and instruction: Employees in a hospital need clear guidance and instruction in order to perform their jobs effectively. Directing provides this guidance and instruction by setting clear expectations, providing training and development opportunities, and providing feedback on performance.
  4. Ensures effective communication: Effective communication is essential for any organization, but it is especially important in a hospital, where the lives of patients may depend on the ability of staff to communicate effectively with each other. Directing can help to ensure effective communication by establishing clear lines of communication, promoting open and honest communication, and resolving conflicts.
  5. Coordinates activities: A hospital is a complex organization with many different departments and units. Directing helps to coordinate the activities of these different departments and units so that they are working together effectively towards the achievement of the hospital’s goals.
  6. Improves efficiency and productivity: Directing can help to improve efficiency and productivity in a hospital by ensuring that employees are working towards the same goals, that they have the necessary resources to do their jobs effectively, and that they are working together effectively.
  7. Creates a positive work environment: A positive work environment is essential for any organization, but it is especially important in a hospital, where the stress levels can be high. Directing can help to create a positive work environment by providing employees with clear goals, providing them with the necessary resources to do their jobs effectively, and recognizing and rewarding their achievements.
  8. Facilitates decision-making: Directing helps to facilitate decision-making in a hospital by providing employees with the information and support they need to make informed decisions. This can help to improve the quality of decision-making and lead to better outcomes for patients.
  9. Promotes teamwork and collaboration: Directing can help to promote teamwork and collaboration in a hospital by creating a culture of cooperation and mutual respect. This can help to improve the working relationships between employees and lead to better patient care.
  10. Enhances employee morale: Directing can help to enhance employee morale by providing employees with the recognition, support, and guidance they need to succeed. This can lead to increased job satisfaction and motivation, which can ultimately lead to better patient care.
  11. Contributes to the overall success of the hospital: Directing is an essential function of management in any organization, including hospitals. By providing guidance, motivation, and supervision to employees, directing helps to ensure that the hospital is operating efficiently and effectively and that patients are receiving the best possible care.
Process of Directing/Steps of Directing

Process of Directing/Steps of Directing

1. Defining the objectives: The first step in directing is to define the objectives of the hospital. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. For example, a hospital might have the following objectives:

  • To provide high-quality patient care
  • To improve patient satisfaction
  • To reduce costs
  • To increase efficiency

2. Organizing the effort: Once the objectives have been defined, the next step is to organize the effort to achieve them. This involves creating a structure of authority and responsibility, and assigning tasks to employees. For example, the hospital might create the following departments:

  • Patient care department
  • Finance department
  • Human resources department
  • Marketing department

3. Measuring work: The next step is to measure work to ensure that it is being performed according to the standards. This can be done through observation, reports, and other methods. For example, the hospital might measure the following:

  • Patient satisfaction scores
  • Employee turnover rates
  • Financial performance
  • Efficiency of operations

4. Developing people: The final step in directing is to develop people. This involves providing employees with the training and support they need to perform their jobs effectively. For example, the hospital might offer the following training programs:

  • Patient care training
  • Leadership training
  • Management training

Elements of Directing

  1. Communication: The process of passing information, experience, opinions, etc., from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding and involves the exchange of ideas and information to create mutual understanding. A manager must explain plans and orders to subordinates and understand their problems. Developing a sound two-way communication system is essential to stay in touch with subordinates. Sound communication fosters mutual understanding and coordination among different units of the organization.
  2. Leadership: The process by which a manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in the desired direction. Leadership involves integrating organizational interests with personal goals. An effective manager possesses the qualities of a good leader. Through leadership, a manager can build confidence and zeal among subordinates. To guide subordinates in the desired direction, a manager should adopt an appropriate style of leadership. The pattern and quality of leadership determine the level of motivation. Leadership is always related to a particular situation.
  3. Motivation: Inspiring, stimulating, or encouraging subordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, and non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose. Motivation implies inspiring subordinates to work with zeal and confidence. No administrative action can succeed unless subordinates are motivated to contribute their best efforts to the common task. To activate and actuate subordinates to work in the desired manner, a manager must use appropriate incentives. Various financial and non-financial incentives are available to a manager for this purpose. Motivation is a continuous process of understanding and satisfying human needs.
  4. Supervision: Overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It involves watching and directing work and workers to ensure that work is being done as planned. Every manager must supervise the work of subordinates to ensure they do their work as desired. Supervision is an important element of the directing process, particularly at the operating level of management. The supervisor is in direct personal contact with workers and acts as a link between workers and management. The supervisor communicates the policies, plans, and orders of management to the workers and brings workers’ grievances, suggestions, and appeals to the notice of management. Effective supervision is essential for accomplishing desired goals. The purpose of supervision is to ensure that subordinates perform their tasks according to prescribed procedures and as efficiently as possible.

Controlling

Controlling in management refers to monitoring activities to ensure that they are performed as planned and correcting any significant deviations.

Controlling is the final step in the management process. It involves measuring actual performance against standards and taking corrective action if necessary to ensure that the organization’s goals are achieved.

Importance of Controlling

1. Accomplishing organizational goals

In a hospital setting, directing is essential for accomplishing organizational goals, such as providing high-quality patient care, improving patient satisfaction, and increasing operational efficiency. Directors must communicate these goals to employees, motivate them to achieve these goals, and supervise their performance to ensure that they are working towards these goals.

2. Judging accuracy of standards

Directors must also ensure that the standards they set for employees are accurate and objective. For example, they must ensure that the standards for patient care are based on evidence-based practices and that the standards for employee performance are fair and achievable.

3. Making efficient use of resources

Hospitals have limited resources, so it is important for directors to make efficient use of these resources. Directing can help to ensure that resources are allocated to the most important areas and that they are used in the most effective way possible. For example, directors can use data to identify areas where costs can be reduced or where efficiency can be improved.

4. Improving employee motivation

Employee motivation is essential for high-quality patient care. Directors can use directing to motivate employees by communicating goals and expectations, providing recognition and rewards, and creating a positive work environment.

5. Ensuring order and discipline

Hospitals are complex organizations with many different departments and employees. Directing can help to ensure that there is order and discipline in the workplace. Directors can do this by setting clear rules and procedures, enforcing these rules and procedures, and taking disciplinary action when necessary.

6. Facilitating coordination in action

 

Directing can also help to facilitate coordination in action between different departments and employees. For example, directors can use meetings, emails, and other communication tools to ensure that everyone is on the same page and that they are working together towards the same goals.

Process of Controlling

Process of Controlling

  1. Establishing performance standards: The first step in controlling is to establish performance standards. These standards should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound.
  2. Measuring actual performance: The next step is to measure actual performance. This can be done through observation, reports, and other methods.
  3. Comparing actual performance to standards: Once actual performance has been measured, it is compared to the performance standards. This comparison will reveal any deviations from the standards.
  4. Taking corrective action: If there are any deviations from the standards, corrective action must be taken. This may involve changing the work process, retraining employees, or taking other steps to improve performance.

Features of Controlling

  • Controlling is a continuous process: Controlling is not a one-time event. It is an ongoing process that should be carried out regularly to ensure that the organization’s goals are being achieved.
  • Controlling is forward-looking: Controlling is not just about looking at past performance. It is also about looking ahead and anticipating potential problems. This allows managers to take proactive steps to prevent problems from occurring.
  • Controlling is pervasive: Controlling is not just the responsibility of top management. It is the responsibility of all managers at all levels of the organization.
  • Controlling is related to planning: Controlling is closely related to planning. The standards that are used to measure performance are derived from the organization’s plans.
Benefits of Controlling

Benefits of Controlling

  • Improved performance: Controlling helps to improve performance by identifying and correcting problems.

  • Increased efficiency: Controlling helps to increase efficiency by identifying and eliminating waste and duplication.

  • Reduced costs: Controlling helps to reduce costs by identifying and eliminating unnecessary expenses.

  • Improved customer satisfaction: Controlling helps to improve customer satisfaction by ensuring that products and services meet customer requirements.

  • Increased profitability: Controlling helps to increase profitability by improving performance, increasing efficiency, and reducing costs.

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Organizing

Organizing as a function in management

Organizing

Organizing in management involves formulating organizational structure that clearly defines the scope of responsibilities, relationships and lines of authority.

Organizing  is the process of combining work, facilities, and resources to achieve specific objectives.

This function is very important to implement the plans efficiently and effectively. It involves identifying the workers of the organization, dividing the labor, developing the chain of command and assigning the authority. To organize a  business means to provide it with everything useful for its functioning, i.e raw materials, tools, capital and personnel.

  • When individuals collaborate to perform a task, it’s beneficial to divide responsibilities for efficient execution.
  • Organization involves grouping people in a stable yet functional pattern.
Principles

Principles of Organization:

  1. Scalar Principle: Clear lines of authority from top to bottom (chain of command). Major decisions and policies are made at the top and filter down through management levels.
  2. Unity of Command: Each person reports to only one supervisor, eliminating ambiguity and confusion.
  3. Responsibility and Authority: Clearly defined and documented responsibilities and authority for each supervisor. Authority is the formal right to require action from others, while responsibility is the accountability for that authority.
  4. Accountability for Subordinates’ Acts: Higher authorities are responsible for the actions of their subordinates.
  5. Delegation of Authority and Responsibility: Delegation as far down the hierarchy as possible to place decision-making power near operations.
  6. Minimizing Levels of Authority: Fewer levels of authority facilitate easier communication, clarity, and faster decision-making.
  7. Specialization: Precise division of work leads to specialization, efficiency, and quality.
  8. Separation of Line and Staff Functions: Line functions are directly involved in achieving company objectives, while staff functions provide assistance and advice.
  9. Reasonable Span of Control: The number of positions coordinated by a single executive should be well-established.
  10. Simplicity and Flexibility: The organization should be simple for ease of management and flexible to adapt to changing conditions.
Benefits of Good Organization:

Advantages/Benefits of Good Organization:

  1. Achievement of Organizational Objectives: Proper coordination of all activities ensures that organizational goals are met effectively.
  2. Minimal Conflict: A clear chain of command reduces conflicts among employees as everyone knows their roles and responsibilities.
  3. Elimination of Overlapping and Duplication: Work is distributed efficiently, avoiding duplication and ensuring that all tasks are covered.
  4. Reduced Likelihood of Run-Around: Clear responsibilities prevent situations where individuals are unsure who is accountable for what.
  5. Facilitation of Promotions: The organizational chart clarifies the positions of individuals, aiding in promotion decisions.
  6. Simplified Wage and Salary Administration: Compensation policies are easier to apply with clear job benefits outlined in the organizational structure.
  7. Simplified Communication: Clear lines of communication and authority streamline communication processes.
  8. Effective Planning: Good organization provides a basis for short-term and long-term planning, such as expansions or contractions.
  9. Increased Cooperation and Pride: Employees have clear roles and responsibilities, fostering a sense of belonging, pride, and morale.
  10. Encouragement of Creativity: A clear organizational structure promotes resourcefulness, initiative, and innovation.
importance of organization

Organization Structure

An organizational structure is a system that outlines how certain activities are directed in order to achieve the goals of an organization. 

These activities can include rules, roles, and responsibilities.

Importance of Organization Structure:
  1. Foundation for Management: The organizational structure serves as the basis for the entire management system.
  2. Division of Work: It defines teams and their collaboration, promoting specialization and efficiency.
  3. Hierarchy and Chain of Command: The structure establishes a clear hierarchy and chain of command, defining reporting relationships.
  4. Areas of Specialization: It indicates different areas of specialization, clarifying authority and responsibility.
  5. Decision-Making Clarity: The structure helps identify the appropriate decision-makers for each employee.

Staffing

Staffing is selecting the personnel to perform the work and placing them in posts suitable to their knowledge and skills.

The managerial function of staffing involves manning the organizational structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal, and development of personnel to fill the roles assigned to employees.

According to Theo Haimann, “Staffing pertains to recruitment, selection, development, and compensation of subordinates.”

Staffing is the management activity that provides for appropriate and adequate personnel to fulfill the organization’s objectives. The nurse manager decides how many and what type of personnel are required to provide care for patients. Usually, the overall plan for staffing is determined by nursing administration, and the nurse manager is in a position to monitor how successful the staffing pattern is and to provide input into needed changes.

Staffing is a complex activity that involves ensuring that the ratio of nurse to patient provides quality care. The situation of a nursing shortage and the high activity levels of admitted patients to acute care areas complicate this process.

 

Staffing depends directly on the workload or patient care needs. An ideal staffing plan would provide the appropriate ratio of caregivers for patients’ individual needs based on data that predict the census.

staffing process nurses

The Staffing Process

The staffing function consists of the following sequential steps:

  1. Job Analysis: Preparing job descriptions, job specifications, and conducting job analysis to understand the requirements of each position.
  2. Recruitment: Exploring all internal and external sources from where the required personnel can be recruited.
  3. Employee Selection: This crucial step involves using techniques to identify and select the most suitable candidates for the positions.
  4. Retention: Once the right people have been hired, they must be retained so that they stay with the organization for a long time. This step discusses factors that are influential in maintaining the workforce.
  5. Training and Development: This consists of programs that assist in the continuous growth and development of employees.
  6. Performance Appraisal and Career Development: This step involves devising methods to judge an employee’s performance over time and providing opportunities for employees to develop their careers and managerial talents.

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Levels of Hospital Management

Levels of Hospital Management

Levels of Hospital Management

Levels of Hospital Management refers to the line of division that exists between various managerial positions in a hospital. 

As the size of the hospital and workforce increases, the number of levels in management increases along with it, and vice versa. The different Levels of Hospital Management can determine the chain of command within a hospital, as well as the amount of authority and usually decision-making influence accumulated by all managerial positions.

 

Levels of Hospital Management can be generally classified into three principal categories, all of which direct managers to perform different functions.

1. Administrative, Managerial, or Top Level of Hospital Management:

This level of management consists of a hospital’s board of directors and the chief executive or medical director.

It is the ultimate source of power and authority, since it oversees the goals, policies, and procedures of a hospital. Their main priority is on the strategic planning and execution of the overall hospital’s success.

The roles and responsibilities of the top level of hospital management can be summarized as follows:

  • Laying down the objectives and broad policies of the hospital enterprise.
  • Issuing necessary instructions for the preparation of department-specific budgets, schedules, procedures, etc.
  • Preparing strategic plans and policies for the hospital.
  • Appointing the executives for middle-level management, i.e. departmental managers.
  • Establishing controls of all hospital departments.
  • Since it consists of the Board of Directors, the top management level is also responsible for communicating with the outside world and is held accountable towards a hospital’s stakeholders for the performance of the enterprise.
  • Providing overall guidance, direction, and encouraging harmony and collaboration.

2. Executive or Middle Level of Hospital Management:

The branch and departmental managers form this middle management level.

These people are directly accountable to top management for the functioning of their respective departments, devoting more time to organizational and directional functions. For smaller hospitals, there is often only one layer of middle management, but larger hospitals can see senior and junior levels within this middle section.

The roles and responsibilities of the middle level of hospital management can be summarized as follows:

  • Executing the plans of the hospital in accordance with the policies and directives laid out by the top management level.
  • Forming plans for the sub-units of the hospital that they supervise.
  • Participating in the hiring and training processes of lower-level management.
  • Interpreting and explaining the policies from top-level management to lower-level management.
  • Sending reports and data to top management in a timely and efficient manner.
  • Evaluating the performance of junior managers.
  • Inspiring lower level managers towards improving their performance.

3. Supervisory, Operative, or Lower Level of Hospital Management:

This level of management consists of supervisors, nurses, section officers, superintendents, and all other executives whose work must do largely with HR oversight and the direction of operative employees.

Simply put, managers at the lower level are primarily concerned with the execution and coordination of day-to-day workflows that ensure completion of patient care and that deliverables are met.

The roles and responsibilities of the lower level of hospital management can be summarized as follows:

  • Assigning patients and tasks to various staff members.
  • Guiding and instructing staff members in day-to-day activities.
  • Overseeing both the quality and quantity of patient care.
  • Maintaining good relations within lower levels of the hospital.
  • Acting as mediators by communicating the problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals, etc. of staff members to the higher level of management, and in turn elucidating higher-level goals and objectives to staff members.
  • Helping to address and resolve the grievances of staff members.
  • Supervising and guiding their subordinates.
  • Taking part in the hiring and training processes of their staff members.
  • Arranging the necessary medical supplies, equipment, tools, and resources, etc. necessary for accomplishing hospital tasks.
  • Preparing periodical reports regarding the performance of the staff members.
  • Upholding discipline, decorum, and harmony within the workplace.
  • Improving the hospital’s image as a whole, due to their direct contact with the staff members.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT.

Functions of management. 

Henri Fayol also described the functions of management as

  1. Planning
  2. Organizing
  3. Directing or Leading
  4. Staffing
  5. Controlling.

As discussed earlier, a healthcare manager is required to juggle a variety of responsibilities. Henri Fayol in 1916/Luther Gullick put forward the functions of an executive/manager as POSDCORB. POSDCORB is an acronym for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting. It was created in 1937 by members of President Roosevelt’s administrative committee, Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick.

Management has five main functions or steps that universally comprise the management process.

planning in management

Planning

Planning in management refers to forecasting what is needed for the future, setting objectives for the desired results and developing strategies to achieve these goals. It is the first management function and all other functions depend on it.

Planning is a decision-making activity that involves the process of determining objectives and deciding on specific actions to achieve those objectives.

Planning is the process of preparing for change and coping with uncertainty by formulating future courses of action.

Planning is particularly crucial due to scarce resources, uncertain environments, and competition for those resources.

Reasons for Planning/Purpose of Planning:
  1. To successfully achieve organizational goals and objectives through established strategies.
  2. To ensure effective resource utilization, including human resources, to prevent resource wastage.
  3. To better cope with situational crises since these were anticipated and planned for.
  4. To ensure effective control of resources, especially human resources.
  5. To guide decision-making by specifying the actions and steps to be taken to achieve organizational goals. This enables managers to make informed decisions on current and future activities.
  6. To anticipate problems and facilitate a smooth flow of organizational operations.
  7. To identify gaps and areas requiring change, which can be addressed for the betterment of the organization. This can be achieved through periodic reviews of organizational activities.
  8. To give meaning to work since employees will work towards a well-defined goal.
Characteristics of a Good Plan:
  1. Simplicity and Comprehensiveness: A good plan should be simple and comprehensive so that all employees can grasp its significance and easily put it into action. It should also be detailed enough to cover all aspects of the operation necessary to achieve the objectives.
  2. Clear and Well-Defined Objectives: A good plan should have clear, well-defined, and easily understood objectives.
  3. Balance and Flexibility: A good plan should be well-balanced and flexible. Existing resources should be allocated for proper utilization, ensuring that short-term gains are not achieved at the cost of long-term gains. It should also be flexible enough to incorporate any changes in resources.
  4. Time-Bound: A good plan should be established for a specific period of time.
  5. Actionable: A good plan should have set out strategies for achieving organizational goals that are practical and actionable.
  6. Involvement of Subordinates: A good plan should incorporate all departments within the organization to promote unity and focus on the overall objective. This involves participation by subordinates.
Principles of Effective Planning:
  1. Clear, Reasonable, and Attainable Aims: The aims of the organization in the plan must be clear, reasonable, and attainable. Unrealistic goals can lead to failure and demotivation.
  2. Involvement of Subordinates: Subordinates should be involved in the planning process to ensure their acceptance of the plans and their commitment to implementing them.
  3. Assigning Planning Responsibility: Planning responsibility should be assigned to the right people, those who are directly involved with the operation and have the necessary expertise.
  4. Realism in Anticipated Results: Planners should be realistic in their anticipation of results. They should not be overly optimistic but should base their plans on a realistic assessment of the organization’s capabilities and resources.
  5. Flexibility and Constant Review: Plans should be flexible and subject to constant review and adjustment as needed. The dynamic nature of the business environment requires plans to be adaptable to changing circumstances.
Levels of Planning:
Levels of Planning:

1. Strategic Planning/Long-Term Planning:

  • Conducted by top management (CEOs, directors, presidents, vice presidents).
  • Involves determining the direction in which the organization should be run.
  • Long-range/term planning (a period of up to 10 years).
  • Deals with the total assessment of the organization’s capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses.

2. Tactical/Intermediate Planning:

  • Covers a time frame of about 6 months to 2 years.
  • Conducted by middle management (department heads).
  • Middle managers refine broad objectives into more workable and realistic plans.

Operational Planning:

  • The responsibility of lower management (unit supervisors).
  • Short-range plans covering a time span from 1 week to one year.
  • More specific and determine how a specific job is to be completed in the best way.

These different levels of planning are interconnected and contribute to the overall success of the organization. Strategic planning provides the foundation for intermediate and operational planning, which in turn support the achievement of the organization’s long-term goals

Planning Process/Steps in Planning:

1. Assessment: Involves collecting adequate data about the organization to answer questions such as: Where are we? What do we have to work with? Where do we want to be? How do we get there?

  • Analyze and interpret the information as a meaningful whole.
  • Identify the organization’s needs, strengths, and weaknesses.

2. Establish and Clearly Define Goals/Objectives:

  • This portion of the planning process should include a detailed overview of each goal, including:
  1. The reason for its selection
  2. The anticipated outcomes of goal-related projects
  • Example: The objective of a hospital is to provide quality healthcare.

3. Identify Resources:

  • Each goal should have financial and human resources attached for its achievement or completion.

4. Priority Setting:

  • Prioritize the objectives and resources based on their importance.
  • Approach and complete the most important tasks first.
  • Consider the steps necessary to complete a task or achieve a goal.

5. Development of Strategies:

  • Set up measures for the achievement of the organizational objectives.
  • Assign a timeline for the achievement/accomplishment of each task.
  • Consider the abilities of the staff when assigning duties or work.
  • Formulate policies, rules, and regulations to control organizational activities.

6. Implementation of the Plan:

  • The action stage of the planning process.
  • Implement all the identified strategies to achieve the organizational goals.
  • Requires a combination of all skills and coordination of all factors.

7. Evaluation of the Plan:

  • Re-evaluate the plan periodically to measure its progress and effectiveness.
  • Correct any deviations and make adjustments where necessary.
  • Request monthly progress reports from department heads.
Benefits of Planning:
Benefits of Planning:
  1. Performance Standards: Planning provides performance standards that assist in the development of potential and standards for measuring the progress of the organization. Essential in organizational control.
  2. Improved Competitive Strength: Deviations are easily identified based on set standards and addressed accordingly.
  3. Reduced Risk and Uncertainty: Anticipate risks and uncertainties early on, Develop strategies to overcome them.
  4. Effective Resource Utilization: Proper planning promotes effective utilization of organizational resources, minimizing wastage.
  5. Future Focus: Planning enables managers to focus on the future rather than the present, giving them purpose and direction.
  6. Framework for Decision-Making: Knowing the organizational objectives and methods to achieve them eliminates ambiguity in the decision-making process.
  7. Motivation for Workers: Proper planning motivates workers, especially if they are involved in the planning process.

Organizing

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Management theories and Styles

Management theories and Styles

MANAGEMENT STYLES

Management styles in nursing refer to the different approaches and strategies that nurse leaders use to manage their teams and achieve organizational goals.

These styles can have a significant impact on job satisfaction, nurse retention rates, quality of care, and patient outcomes. 

Management styles in health practice and within health care institutions include the 3D’s, i.e Directing, Discussing and Delegating.

  • Directing Style: 

Managers tell people what to do, how to do it and when to have it completed. They assign roles and responsibilities, set standards and define expectations. The people who use this style are called Autocratic (or authoritarian) managers i.e. they make all the important decisions and closely supervise and control workers. Managers do not trust workers and simply give orders (one-way communication) that they expect to be obeyed. This approach derives from the views of Taylor as to how to motivate workers and relates to McGregor’s theory X view of workers. 

  • Discussing Style:

 Managers who adopt this style take the time to discuss pertinent business issues. They encourage individuals to present their ideas, ask questions, actively listen, provide feedback, challenge assumptions, and offer guidance when necessary. Ensuring that ideas are thoroughly discussed and debated is considered essential. In this style, managers often assume the role of facilitator, ensuring that the discussion remains focused and that everyone has an opportunity to contribute. This management style is commonly referred to as paternalistic management.

  • Delegating Style:

Managers using this style usually explain or get agreement on what has to be accomplished and when it must be completed. The how-to-do-it part of the equation is left up to the employee. Responsibility and authority are given to employees to get the job done.

MANAGEMENT THEORIES

Understanding management theories is important for developing effective management styles, especially in roles like building up nurse leaders. There are four key theories focused on management, particularly for nurse managers:

1.Classical organization theory

  • Bureaucracy management theory
  • Scientific management theory
  • Administrative Management theory

2. Contingency theory.

3. Human relation theory.

4. Behavioral science theory.

CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION THEORY

During the 19th century, there was a significant shift in societies from agricultural and non-mechanized practices to commercial and industrial ones, due to the industrial revolution. This led to the establishment of new manufacturing processes, increased industrialization, and the emergence of large groups of people working together. People began working alongside machinery, and companies sought more efficient ways to address the new challenges and enhance productivity. As a result, there was a growing interest in organizing people effectively and managing resources in a manner that would maximize profits.

As a reaction to all of these changes taking part in the world back then, the classical management theory emerged.

Max Weber, Frederick Taylor and Henri Fayol – are considered as the founding fathers of classical management theory. They tried to answer the questions generated by the industrial revolution, concerning the organizational and managerial side, each one from his own vision .

The German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) is mostly known for the term Bureaucracy. According to this thesis, Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is a management approach that proposes a specific way to organize and run an organization. It emphasizes the importance of a rigid hierarchical structure, strict rules and regulations, and standardized processes. Weber believed that bureaucracy was the most efficient and effective way to manage large organizations and achieve maximum productivity.

The American mechanical engineer Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) promoted another approach called “scientific management” that was against customized self-styled work; he saw this as an obstacle to increasing productivity. Instead, he called for “applying science to work ” by studying every task and finding out how much time and motion it takes to be done and then come up with one standardized right way to perform every task.

The French mining engineer Henri Fayol (1841-1923) in his book ” General And Industrial Management ” developed an Administrative Management approach which argued that there are some managerial activities that every manager should be good at. These activities include: planning, organizing, commanding, coordination, and control. To master these skills he wanted managers to be trained in a more systematic approach .

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION THEORY

In addition to all of the above, Weber, Taylor and Fayol all agreed about some common ideas. These ideas constituted the main principles of the classical management theory:

  1. Clearly Defined Hierarchy: The organization should have a well-defined chain of command and authority, with clear levels of management and supervision.
  2. Division of Labor: Tasks and responsibilities should be divided among employees based on their skills and expertise, allowing for specialization and increased efficiency.
  3. Standardized Approach to Work: Work processes and procedures should be standardized to ensure consistency and quality in performance.
  4. Formalization and Separation between Personal and Work Life: There should be a clear distinction between personal life and work life, with formal rules and regulations governing behavior and interactions within the organization.
  5. Selection of the Best Employees: The organization should strive to hire the most qualified individuals for each job, ensuring higher performance and effectiveness.
  6. Fair Compensation: Employees should be paid fairly for their work, based on their skills, responsibilities, and contributions to the organization.

The ideas of Max Weber, Frederick Taylor and Henri Fayol all came together to form a foundation of what’s called today classical management theory which is actually considered as the basis of all the other managerial theories that came later.

THEORY OF BUREAUCRACY(Max Weber's)

THEORY OF BUREAUCRACY(Max Weber’s)

Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is a management approach that proposes a specific way to organize and run an organization. It emphasizes the importance of a rigid hierarchical structure, strict rules and regulations, and standardized processes. Weber believed that bureaucracy was the most efficient and effective way to manage large organizations and achieve maximum productivity.

Key principles of Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy

  1. Hierarchy: The organization is structured into a clear hierarchy of authority, with each level having specific responsibilities and reporting to the level above it.
  2. Division of Labor: Tasks and responsibilities are divided among employees based on their specialized skills and competencies. This specialization allows for increased efficiency and effectiveness.
  3. Formal Selection: Employees are selected based on their technical qualifications and skills, which are acquired through training, education, and experience. Formal selection ensures that employees are well-suited for their roles.
  4. Rules and Regulations: Bureaucratic organizations rely on a set of formal rules and regulations that govern behavior, decision-making, and processes. These rules provide clarity and consistency in how work is performed.
  5. Impersonality: Interactions within a bureaucratic organization are based on formal rules and procedures rather than personal relationships. This helps to prevent favoritism and ensures fairness.
  6. Career Orientation: Bureaucratic organizations provide opportunities for employees to advance their careers based on their expertise and experience. This allows for the optimal utilization of human capital.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY(Taylor)

Around a century ago, Frederick Taylor argued for enhanced efficiency in jobs through thorough analysis. With well-designed tasks and adequate incentives, workers could achieve higher productivity. For example,  Taylor advocated for paying based on output rather than hours worked, creating incentives for efficient work. In health care, the equivalent would be by the number of patients bathed or visited at home rather than by the number of hours worked. This would create an incentive to get the most work done in the least amount of time.  

  • Frederick Taylor’s scientific management theory, also known as the classical management theory, focuses on improving efficiency and productivity in the workplace.
  • Taylor believed that jobs should be simplified and optimized to increase productivity. He emphasized the importance of managers interacting with their subordinates to enhance efficiency.
  • His theory is based on four principles: the scientific approach to work, scientific selection and training of employees, collaboration between employees and employers, and the division of work and responsibilities among employees.
  • Taylor’s approach has gained traction in today’s business climate, where there is a focus on work-life balance and employee satisfaction.

Principles of Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor

Frederick Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management, also known as Taylorism, are a set of principles aimed at improving efficiency and productivity in industrial workplaces. These principles focus on the division of labor, scientific selection and training of workers, cooperation between management and workers, and the development of standardized procedures.

  1. Develop a science for each element of work: Taylor believed that every task should be analyzed and broken down into its individual components. By studying each element scientifically, optimal methods and procedures can be developed to maximize efficiency and productivity.
  2. Scientifically select, train, teach, and develop the worker: According to Taylor, workers should be carefully selected based on their abilities and suitability for a particular task. They should then be trained and educated in the most efficient methods of performing their work. Continuous development and improvement of workers’ skills are essential for achieving maximum productivity.
  3. Cooperate with the worker: Taylor emphasized the importance of cooperation between management and workers. Managers should provide guidance, support, and assistance to workers, ensuring that the work is done in accordance with the established scientific principles. This cooperation helps create a harmonious work environment and fosters a sense of teamwork.
  4. Divide the work and responsibility: Taylor advocated for the division of work and responsibility between management and workers. Managers should take on tasks that they are better suited for, while workers focus on their specialized tasks. This division ensures that each individual can contribute their skills and expertise to the overall productivity of the organization.
  • Scientific approach to work: Tasks should be analyzed scientifically to determine the most efficient way of performing them.
  • Scientific selection and training of employees: Employees should be selected based on their ability to perform tasks efficiently, and they should receive training to enhance their skills.
  • Collaboration between employees and employers: There should be cooperation and teamwork between management and workers to achieve organizational goals.
  • Division of work and responsibilities: Work should be divided among employees based on their skills and capabilities to maximize efficiency.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Organization:

Advantages:

  • Increased efficiency and productivity: Scientific management principles aim to optimize work processes, leading to higher output and improved efficiency.
  • Standardization of procedures: By developing standardized procedures, organizations can ensure consistency and reduce errors.
  • Clear division of labor: Assigning specific tasks to workers based on their skills and abilities can lead to specialization and increased productivity.
  • Teamwork: The emphasis on cooperation between management and workers promotes a harmonious work environment and enhances teamwork.

Disadvantages:

  • Potential resistance from workers: Some workers may resist the strict control and monitoring associated with scientific management, leading to decreased morale and job satisfaction.
  • Overemphasis on efficiency: The focus on efficiency and productivity may overlook other important aspects, such as employee well-being and creativity.
  • Lack of flexibility: Standardized procedures may limit the ability to adapt to changing circumstances or individual worker preferences.
  • Potential dehumanization of work: Critics argue that scientific management reduces workers to mere crows in a machine, disregarding their individuality and creativity.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Employee:

Advantages:

  • Clear expectations and guidelines: Scientific management provides workers with clear instructions and guidelines for performing their tasks, reducing ambiguity and uncertainty.
  • Opportunities for training and development: The emphasis on training and development allows workers to enhance their skills and improve their career prospects.
  • Fair compensation: Scientific management principles aim to link compensation to performance, providing workers with the opportunity to earn higher wages based on their productivity.
  • Improved working conditions: The focus on efficiency can lead to the elimination of unnecessary physical strain and the improvement of working conditions.

Disadvantages:

  • Loss of autonomy: Workers may feel that their autonomy and decision-making authority are diminished under scientific management.
  • Monotonous and repetitive tasks: The division of labor may result in workers performing repetitive tasks, leading to boredom and decreased job satisfaction.
  • Lack of creativity and innovation: The strict adherence to standardized procedures may discourage workers from suggesting new ideas or innovative approaches.
  • Potential for burnout: The pursuit of maximum productivity may lead to increased workloads and stress for employee

In Summary,

  • Frederick Taylor argued that most jobs could be done more efficiently if they were analyzed thoroughly.
  • With a well-designed task and enough incentive, workers could be more productive.
  • Taylorism stresses that there is a best way to do a job, usually the fastest way.
  • The work is analyzed to improve efficiency, such as reducing excess staff or increasing productivity.
  • Nurse managers using scientific management principles focus on assessments, treatments, equipment, and strategies for efficient task accomplishment.
  • They keep careful records of work accomplished and reward high performers.

Achievements of Taylor

  • Trained his workers to follow the time of completing their works. Therefore the most productive workers were hired even when they paid them an incentive.
  • Labour costs were reduced as a result.
  • Responsibilities of management were separated from the functions of workers.
  • Developed a systematic approach to determine the most efficient means of action.
  • Consider that the management function is to plan.
  • Increased production and higher profit e.g. in a health services delivery of a profit making organization, good production will lead to increase in clients therefore increasing high profits.
CONTINGENCY THEORY (Fred Fiedler)

CONTINGENCY THEORY (Fred Fiedler)

Fred Fiedler’s contingency theory suggests that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to management. Instead, the most effective management style depends on the specific situation.

Fiedler proposed that the effectiveness of a leader depends on the match between their leadership style and the favorableness of the situation, which is determined by factors such as task structure, leader-member relations, and position power.

This theory emphasizes the need for leaders to adapt their management style based on the circumstances and the characteristics of their team members.

Principles of Contingency Theory

  1. Leadership Style: Fiedler’s Contingency Theory states that there is not one best style of leadership. Instead, the most effective leadership style for any given situation is one that aligns with the situation at hand, therefore, Rejects the idea of a universal management style.
  2. Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale: Fiedler developed the LPC scale to measure an individual’s leadership orientation. A high LPC score suggests a “human relations orientation,” while a low LPC score indicates a “task orientation” .
  3. Situational Favorability: Fiedler’s theory emphasizes the importance of situational control for a leader’s effectiveness. Situational favorability is determined by task structure, leader-member relations, and position power in determining the appropriate management approach.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Organization:

Advantages:

  • Flexibility: Contingency Theory allows organizations to adapt their leadership style to different situations, increasing the chances of success.
  • Improved Performance: By matching leadership style to the situation, organizations can enhance performance and achieve better outcomes.
  • Effective Decision Making: Contingency Theory helps leaders make informed decisions based on the specific circumstances they are facing.

Disadvantages:

  • Complexity: Implementing Contingency Theory requires a deep understanding of various situational factors, which can be complex and challenging to assess accurately.
  • Lack of Consistency: The theory suggests that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to leadership, which can lead to inconsistency in leadership practices within an organization.
  • Reliance on Leader’s Assessment: The effectiveness of Contingency Theory relies on the leader’s ability to accurately assess the situation and adjust their leadership style accordingly.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Employee:

Advantages:

  • Increased Job Satisfaction: When leaders adapt their style to match the situation, employees may experience higher job satisfaction due to better communication and support.
  • Improved Motivation: Employees are more likely to be motivated when they perceive their leader as understanding and responsive to their needs.
  • Enhanced Performance: Employees may perform better when their leader’s style aligns with the demands of the situation, leading to improved productivity and outcomes.

Disadvantages:

  • Inconsistency: Employees may find it challenging to adapt to different leadership styles depending on the situation, leading to confusion and uncertainty.
  • Lack of Autonomy: In situations where leaders have high control and influence, employees may feel restricted in their decision-making and autonomy.
  • Potential for Bias: The effectiveness of Contingency Theory relies on the leader’s assessment of the situation, which may introduce bias and subjective judgments.

HUMAN RELATION THEORY (Elton Mayo)

The Human Relations Theory, developed by Elton Mayo, emphasizes the importance of social relationships and group dynamics in the workplace. Mayo’s research, particularly the Hawthorne studies, highlighted the impact of social factors on employee productivity and motivation. 

Human relation theory concentrates on the impact of individuals on an organization’s success or failure. Instead of solely focusing on the organization’s structure, managers encourage the development of employees’ potential and help them meet their needs for recognition, accomplishment, and a sense of belonging. 

Mary Parker Follett, an influential figure in this theory, stressed the importance of coordinating the psychological and sociological aspects of management. She believed that management is a social process and emphasized the importance of situational factors in decision-making and the concept of “power with” rather than “power over” others.

  • In this theory, the focus is on the empowerment of the individual worker as a source of control, motivation, and productivity in the organizations.
  • The Hawthorne studies led to the belief that human relation between workers and managers and among the workers were the main determinants of efficiency.
  • The Hawthorne effect refers to the phenomenon of how being observed or studied results in a change of behavior.
  • This theory also emphasizes participatory decision making which increases worker’s autonomy.
  • It also lays emphasis on the training of the employees to improve work.

Principles of the Human Relations Theory

  1. Social Interaction: Mayo believed that employees are motivated by social interactions and relationships within the workplace. Positive social bonds and a supportive work environment can enhance employee satisfaction and productivity.
  2. Individual Attention: Recognizing employees as individuals with unique needs and aspirations is crucial. Providing individual attention and support can foster a sense of significance and belonging, leading to increased motivation and productivity.
  3. Participation and Involvement: Mayo advocated for involving employees in decision-making processes and giving them a voice in matters that affect their work. This participation can enhance employee engagement and commitment to the organization.
  4. Informal Communication: Mayo emphasized the importance of informal communication channels, such as conversations and interactions among employees. These informal networks can facilitate the exchange of ideas, build relationships, and create a positive work environment.
  5. Leadership Style: Mayo believed that leaders should adopt a supportive and participative leadership style. Leaders should focus on building relationships, providing guidance, and creating a supportive work environment.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Organization:

Advantages:

  • Increased employee satisfaction and motivation.
  • Improved teamwork and collaboration.
  • Enhanced employee engagement and commitment.
  • Enhanced organizational culture and cohesion.
  • Higher productivity and efficiency.
  • Reduced turnover and absenteeism.
  • Better retention of talented employees.

Disadvantages:

  • Potential resistance to change from employees accustomed to traditional management approaches.
  • Time-consuming process of building and maintaining positive social relationships.
  • Potential for decreased focus on productivity.
  • Possibility of conflicts arising from social dynamics.
  • Challenges in maintaining a balance between social needs and work objectives.
  • Resistance to change due to strong social bonds.
  • Difficulty in quantifying the impact of social factors on productivity.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Employee:

Advantages:

  • Increased job satisfaction and sense of belonging.
  • Opportunities for personal and professional growth.
  • Supportive work environment.
  • Enhanced communication and collaboration with colleagues.
  • Greater involvement in decision-making processes.
  • Recognition and appreciation for individual contributions.

Disadvantages:

  • Potential conflicts and disagreements within the workplace.
  • Pressure to conform to group norms and expectations.
  • Limited individual autonomy in decision-making.
  • Potential for favoritism or bias in social relationships.
  • Possibility of blurred boundaries between work and personal life.
  • Increased workload due to informal expectations.

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE THEORY(Douglas McGregor)

The behavioral management theory is often called the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs also lies under behavioral science theory.

Theory X assumes that employees dislike work and must be directed and controlled, while Theory Y suggests that employees can find satisfaction in their work and are self-motivated.

Douglas McGregor expressed his views of human nature in two sets of assumptions. They are popularly known as ‘Theory X’ and ‘Theory Y’

Theory X assumptions: Theory X reflects a common attitude among managers that most people do not want to work very hard and that the manager’s job is to make sure that they do work hard. To accomplish this, according to Theory X, a manager needs to employ strict rules, constant supervision, and the threat of punishment (reprimands, withheld raises, and threats of job loss) to create industrious, motivated workers. 

  •  Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. 
  •  Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment.
  •  Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.
  • Most workers place security above all other factors and will display little ambition. 

Managers who believe on the assumption of Theory X will always do the following;

  • He/she will always do the thinking and planning with little input from staff.
  • He/she will always motivate workers through fears and threats.
  • He/she will be failing to make use of workers’ potential.
  • They will delegate little but supervise closely.

Theory X:

Advantages to Organizations

Disadvantages to Organizations

– Clear hierarchy and control structure

– Creates a negative work environment

– Provides a structured approach to management

– Decreases employee morale and motivation

– Ensures tasks are completed as directed

– Limits creativity and innovation

– Can be effective in managing routine tasks

– May lead to high turnover rates

– Managers have greater control over employees

– Increases resistance to change

Advantages to Employees

Disadvantages to Employees

– Provides clear expectations and guidelines

– Reduces autonomy and freedom

– Offers security through consistent supervision

– Limits opportunities for personal growth

– Offers stability in job roles and tasks

– Can lead to job dissatisfaction

– Provides direction and structure

– Increases stress and job-related tension

– May offer opportunities for skill development

– Decreases job satisfaction and morale



Theory Y assumptions: Theory Y managers believe that the work itself can be motivating and that people will work hard if their managers provide a supportive environment. A Theory Y manager emphasizes guidance rather than control, development rather than close supervision, and reward rather than punishment. A Theory Y nurse manager is concerned with keeping employee morale as high as possible, assuming that satisfied, and motivated employees will do the best work

  • Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. 
  • People will exercise self-direction and self control if they are committed to the objectives. 
  • The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. 
  • The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population.

Managers who before in Theory Y will always do the following;

  • They will always delegate where necessary.
  • Will allow participation in work by all employees.
  • Will give general supervision than close supervision
  • Normally motivates employees by praises and recognition.

Theory X:

Advantages to Organizations

Disadvantages to Organizations

– Fosters a positive work culture and environment

– May result in decreased control over employees

– Encourages creativity and innovation

– Can be challenging to implement in certain industries or contexts

– Increases employee motivation and satisfaction

– Requires a higher level of trust in employees

– Leads to higher levels of employee engagement

– May result in slower decision-making processes

– Promotes adaptability and flexibility

– Potential for conflicts between management and employees

Advantages to Employees

Disadvantages to Employees

– Offers opportunities for autonomy and self-direction

– May increase stress due to higher levels of responsibility

– Promotes personal and professional growth

– Requires a higher level of self-motivation

– Recognizes and values employee contributions

– Can lead to increased workload

– Provides opportunities for skill development

– Increases pressure to perform

– Fosters a positive work-life balance

– Requires a higher level of accountability

ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY(Henri Fayol)

Administrative theory is the oldest theory and is sometimes referred to as traditional management theory. It considers the organization as a whole, rather than solely focusing on production. 

Henri Fayol, a prominent contributor to this theory, identified the functions of managers and concluded that management is universal. He advocated for specialization, equal treatment, stability of personnel, and the teaching of management in colleges.

Henri Fayol’s administrative theory focuses on the principles of management that can be applied universally to any organization or industry.

  • Fayol identified five key functions of management: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. He also outlined 14 principles of management, including unity of command, division of work, and scalar chain.

Importance of Administrative theory

  • It makes organization to be viewed as a whole rather than focusing solely on production.
  • It gives the view of control, authority, responsibility and accountability.
  • He studied the functions of managers and concluded that management is universal. He believed that;
  • All managers have the responsibilities of planning, organizing, issuing orders, coordinating, and controlling.
  • He derived general principles of administration from his observations.
  • He believed in the division of work.
  • He argued that specialization increases efficiency.
  • Advocated that there is a place for everything and everything in its place.
  • He developed group harmony through equal treatment and stability of tenure of personnel.
  • He also urged that management be taught in colleges.
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Henri Fayol, a renowned French mining engineer, developed a set of principles known as the Principles of Administrative Theory.

Principles of management are the means by which one actually manages, that is, gets things done through others—individually, in groups, or in organizations. 

Fayol has given 14 principles of management with the intent to improve the functioning of the managers.

  1. Division of Work: The work should be divided among the individuals on the basis of their specializations, so as to ensure their full focus on the effective completion of the task assigned to them.
  2. Authority and Responsibility: The authority and responsibility are related to each other. Authority means the right to give orders while responsibility means being accountable. Thus, to whomsoever the authority is given to exact obedience must be held accountable for anything that goes wrong.
  3. Discipline: The individuals working in the organization must be well disciplined. The discipline refers to the obedience, behavior, and respect shown by the employees towards others.
  4. Unity of Command: According to this principle, an individual in the organization must receive orders from only one supervisor. In case an individual has the reporting relationship with more than one supervisor then there may be more conflicts with respect to whose instructions to be followed.
  5. Unity of Direction: Unity of direction means, all the individuals or groups performing different kinds of a task must be directed towards the common objective of the organization.
  6. Subordination of Individual to General Interest: According to this principle, the individual and organizational interest must coincide to get the task accomplished. The individual must not place his personal interest over the common interest, in case there is a conflict.
  7. Remuneration of Personnel: The payment methods should be fair enough such that both the employees and the employers are satisfied.
  8. Centralization: Fayol defines centralization as the means of reducing the importance of a subordinate’s role in the organization, and the extent to which the authority is centralized or decentralized depends on the organization type in which the manager is working.
  9. Scalar Chain of Command: This means there should be a proper hierarchy in the organization that facilitates the proper flow of authority and communication. It suggests that each individual must know from whom he shall get instructions and to whom he is accountable to. Also, the communication either going up or down must pass through each level of authority. In certain circumstances where the quick flow of communication is required, the rigidity of a scalar chain can pose problems. Thus, Henry Fayol has suggested “gang plank” which means anybody in the hierarchy can interact with each other irrespective of their authority levels.
  10. Order: This principle is related to the systematic arrangement of things and people in the organization. This means every material should be in its place, and there should be a place for every material. Likewise, in the case of people, a right man should be in the right job.
  11. Equity: All the employees in the organization must be treated equally with respect to justice and kindliness.
  12. Stability of Tenure: The employees should be retained in the organization, as new appointments may incur huge selection and training cost.
  13. Initiative: The manager must motivate his subordinates to think and take actions to execute the plan. They must be encouraged to take initiatives as this increases the zeal and energy among the individuals.
  14. Esprit de Corps: This means “unity is strength”. Thus, every individual must work together to gain synergy and establish cordial relations with each other.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Organization:

Advantages:

  • Improved efficiency and productivity.
  • Clear chain of command and communication.
  • Enhanced coordination and unity among employees.
  • Effective utilization of resources.
  • Motivated and loyal workforce.
  • Provides a universal framework for management.

Disadvantages:

  • Potential for excessive centralization and lack of employee empowerment.
  • Rigidity in decision-making and resistance to change.
  • Possibility of creating a hierarchical and bureaucratic organizational culture.
  • Limited flexibility in adapting to unique environments.
  • Challenges in maintaining unity of command.

Advantages and Disadvantages to the Employee:

Advantages:

  • Clear structure and hierarchy.
  • Clear understanding of roles and responsibilities.
  • Fair compensation and recognition for their work.
  • Job security and stability.
  • Opportunities for growth and development.
  • Sense of belonging and team spirit.

Disadvantages:

  • Limited autonomy and decision-making power.
  • Potential for lack of creativity and innovation.
  • Possibility of feeling constrained by strict rules and regulations.
  • Potential for conflicts arising from a hierarchical structure.
  • Possibility of slower response to change.
  • Potential for micromanagement.
Importances of management

Importances of management

The aim of all managers is the same regardless of rank and type organization – to increase productivity. This means effectiveness and efficiency that is achieving organizational goals and achieving them at low cost. Effective management therefore is the concern of a corporation president, a medical superintendent, a commissioner in the ministry, a church Bishop, a school head prefect, and others.

  • Achievement of Organizational Goals: Effective management ensures that organizations are able to set and achieve their goals. Managers develop strategic plans, define objectives, allocate resources, and coordinate efforts to ensure that the organization’s objectives are met.
  • Efficient Resource Utilization: Management helps in optimizing the use of available resources such as human capital, financial assets, and technological resources. By effectively allocating resources and avoiding wastage, management enhances productivity and reduces costs.
  • Decision Making: Managers are responsible for making important decisions that impact the organization. Through their expertise and experience, managers analyze information, evaluate alternatives, and make informed decisions to address challenges and capitalize on opportunities.
  • Motivation and Employee Engagement: Effective management creates a positive work environment and motivates employees to perform at their best. Managers inspire and empower their teams, provide guidance and support, recognize achievements, and foster a culture of collaboration and innovation.
  • Conflict Resolution: Conflicts and disagreements are inevitable in any organization. Skilled managers are equipped with conflict resolution techniques and can mediate disputes, promote understanding, and maintain harmonious relationships among team members.
  • Adaptability and Change Management: In a dynamic business environment, adaptability is crucial. Managers play a key role in identifying changes, formulating strategies to respond to them, and guiding the organization through transitions effectively.
  • Enhancing Communication and Coordination: Effective management facilitates communication and coordination among different levels and departments within an organization. Clear communication channels, efficient information sharing, and collaborative efforts are vital for organizational success.
  • Risk Management: Managers assess and manage risks that an organization may face. They identify potential risks, develop contingency plans, and implement risk mitigation strategies to protect the organization’s interests.
  • Continuous Improvement: Management encourages a culture of continuous improvement by promoting innovation, conducting performance evaluations, and implementing feedback mechanisms. This helps organizations stay competitive and adapt to evolving market conditions.

Functions of management.

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HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT

HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT

 HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT

Health service management is a profession that provides leadership and direction to organizations that deliver personal health services.

It involves managing divisions, departments, units, or services within these organizations.

The goal of teaching health services management (HSM) is to equip students with the skills necessary to effectively manage health services. Management involves getting things done by working with and through people to achieve organizational goals and objectives.

 

Health Service Management involves getting people to work together harmoniously, utilizing resources effectively to deliver health services to individuals and the community they serve.

Definition of Terms

Management:

  • Management is the process of influencing others with the specific intention of getting them to perform effectively and contribute to meeting organizational goals. (Drucker, 1967)
  • Management is the process of making efficient use of resources and getting people to work harmoniously together to achieve organizational objectives/goals.
  • The process of getting work done through other people.

Leadership:

  • The process of influencing others to work towards a common goal. (Bennie and Nanas, 1985)

Leader:

  • An influential person who has the ability to lead a group or department without necessarily holding a formal position.

Manager:

  • A formally and officially responsible individual for the work of a specific group or unit. For example, a ward in charge or a school principal is officially accountable for ensuring that their respective units accomplish their tasks effectively.

Authority:

  • Refers to the legitimate right granted to a manager or leader by an organization to direct and command subordinates. It empowers them to act in the best interests of the organization to achieve its goals.

Power:

  • The ability to influence others to act or behave in a certain way. It can be derived from various sources, such as rewards or coercion.

Nursing Management:

  • Nursing management is the process of working through nursing personnel to promote and maintain health, prevent illness, and alleviate suffering.
  • The role of a nurse manager is to plan, organize, direct, and control available resources to provide effective and efficient care to groups of clients.
MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT

Management has been applied since the beginning of civilization. In communities, people have always worked together to grow crops, build temples, etc.

The manager who is stiff causes “a red tape” i.e. a breakdown in organization. In proper management, information should flow from subordinates to the supervisors and vice-versa.

In management, there is control of resources including human resources. Resources including human resources are considered under 4m’s i.e.

  • Manpower
  • Material
  • Money
  • Movement

Manpower resources cannot be bought from shelves like any other resources. This means manpower is not always available particularly in the right kind.

Management enhances teamwork as opposed to work in isolation. This therefore requires a manager to be flexible in order to succeed.

Health Service Management means getting people to work together harmoniously using resources effectively to deliver health services to the individuals and the community they serve.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE LEADER AND THE MANAGER. 

 

Leader

Manager

May or may not have an official appointment.

Appointed officially to the position.

Has the power and authority to enforce decisions as long as followers are willing to be led.

Has power and authority to enforce decisions.

Influences others either formally or informally.

Carries out predetermined policies, rules, and regulations.

Has a variety of roles beyond that of a manager.

Carries out specific functions, duties, and responsibilities.

Manipulates resources (people, money, etc.) to achieve organizational goals.

Strives to obtain results by making rules, remaining in control, and reacting to situations.

Achieves power through influence and charisma.

Achieves power by virtue of his/her position.

Focuses on group process, information gathering, feedback, and empowering others.

Performs all five functions of management.

Chooses to achieve goals through passion, heart, and charisma.

Is accountable for self and subordinates’ behavior and performance.

Has individuals who believe in what they say, known as followers.

Has subordinates who follow their rules.

Influences people to work willingly for group objectives.

People follow them on a voluntary basis.

Has no well-defined accountability.

Manager is accountable for self and subordinates’ behavior and performance.

 

Concepts of Management.

These are the most important concepts in health care management;

  • Effectiveness
  • Efficiency
  • Equity

Effectiveness: 

  • Effectiveness refers to the extent to which an organization or individual achieves their goals and objectives. OR It is a measure of how well an organization or a person is meeting his or her goals e.g if the goal of the hospital is to provide high quality health care and it succeeds in doing so then it’s working effectively.
  •  It focuses on the outcomes and results of actions taken. In management, effectiveness is measured by assessing whether the desired outcomes have been achieved and if the organization is fulfilling its purpose. This can include factors such as meeting targets, satisfying customer needs, and achieving desired outcomes.

Efficiency: 

  • Efficiency is concerned with maximizing output or achieving the desired results with the least amount of resources, time, or effort.  OR It’s a measure of how well an organization or individual is using its resources to achieve its goals. If money and materials have been used well and less wastage then the organization is working efficiently. If costs are too high or materials are being wasted then the activity is inefficient. Efficiency means doing things right, using resources wisely and with a minimum of wastage.
  • It focuses on optimizing processes and minimizing waste. In management, efficiency is measured by evaluating the ratio of inputs to outputs. This can involve streamlining operations, reducing costs, improving productivity, and eliminating unnecessary steps or activities .

Equity:

  •  Equity refers to fairness and justice in the distribution of resources, opportunities, and outcomes. 
  • It emphasizes equal treatment and consideration of all stakeholders. In management, equity involves ensuring that decisions and actions are unbiased and that everyone has equal access to resources, benefits, and opportunities. This can include promoting diversity and inclusion, addressing discrimination, and creating a supportive and inclusive work environment 
  • Access to basic health care is a right  to all people, however this does not happen in real life for many reasons. Health inequality is a result of unfair distribution of health services and may be associated with low economic status, poor geographical location, and other factors.
NURSING MANAGEMENT

NURSING MANAGEMENT

Nursing  management is the body of knowledge related to performing the functions of planning, staffing, directing, organizing and controlling (evaluating) the activities of nursing. 

Nursing management is the field of nursing that focuses on leadership and overseeing of nurses. 

Nurse manager is a person responsible for translating the administrative reasons into operational plans and acting in the middle and first line level of hierarchy.

Roles of an effective Nursing Manager.

A nurse manager works along four main dimensions.The dimensions are geared towards her own development and offering quality and clinical standards.

  1. Enhancing the patients experience by;
  • Inspiring patients’ confidence.
  • Develops a culture of person centered care in their area of responsibility.
  • Is approachable, identifiable and accessible.

2. Promoting safe and effective clinical practice.

  • Offers clinical leadership and teamwork.
  • Provides evidence based and clinical effective practice.
  • Develops a culture of continuous quality improvement.
  • Focuses on patient safety.

3. Manages and develops performance of a team.

  • Role modelling.
  • Facilitates learning and development i.e create a learning environment.
  • Ensures effective and efficient use of resources.

4. Contributes to delivery of organizational objectives.

  • Creates political and strategic awareness.
  • Contributes to service development.
  • Recognizes the links with national initiatives and advocates on behalf of patients.
  • Empowered clinical leader.
  • Inspires and motivates the team.
  • Has proper recognition of their role.

Roles of Nursing Managers in Healthcare Facilities

The American Organization of Nurse Executives (AONE) outlines six primary roles and functions of nurse managers:

  1. Clinical Practice Excellence: Nurse managers are responsible for ensuring the delivery of high-quality patient care and maintaining clinical practice standards within their assigned units or areas.
  2. Resource Management: They are accountable for managing human, fiscal, and material resources to support clinical nursing practice. This includes optimizing personnel, equipment, and supplies while considering cost-effectiveness.
  3. Staff Development: Nurse managers facilitate the professional growth and development of their staff. They ensure that competency levels are maintained and that new skills are acquired to meet patient needs. They also provide support and guidance to students in nursing and other healthcare professions.
  4. Compliance Assurance: Nurse managers are responsible for ensuring that their units and the healthcare facility comply with professional, regulatory, and government standards of care. They interpret and implement these standards and ensure that staff is aware of and adheres to them.
  5. Strategic Planning: Nurse managers participate in strategic planning at the unit, department, and organizational levels. They develop and implement plans that support the overall goals of the healthcare facility and respond to changes in the healthcare environment.
  6. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Nurse managers promote cooperative relationships among different disciplines and departments to ensure effective nursing care delivery. They promote companionship, mutual respect, and support to strengthen teamwork and communication.

Additional Roles of Nurse Managers

In addition to the AONE roles, nurse managers at various levels may also:

  • Lead and motivate staff to achieve optimal performance
  • Implement evidence-based practices to improve patient outcomes
  • Manage budgets and allocate resources effectively
  • Advocate for patients and their families
  • Participate in quality improvement initiatives
  • Collaborate with other healthcare professionals to provide comprehensive care

Challenges for Nurse Managers

Nurse managers face numerous challenges in today’s healthcare environment, including:

  • Managing in a constantly changing system: The healthcare system is constantly changing, with new technologies, regulations, and patient care processes emerging all the time. Nurse managers must be able to adapt to these changes quickly and effectively to ensure that their units and staff are providing the best possible care.
  • Delivering quality care within cost constraints: Healthcare costs are rising, and nurse managers are under pressure to deliver high-quality care while also managing costs. This can be a difficult balancing act, but it is essential to ensure that patients receive the care they need without breaking the bank.
  • Adapting to new technologies and practices: New technologies and practices are constantly being introduced into healthcare, and nurse managers must be able to evaluate and implement these new technologies and practices in a way that benefits patients and staff. This can be a challenge, especially for nurse managers who are not familiar with new technologies.
  • Managing diverse teams of professionals: Nurse managers often oversee teams of professionals from a variety of backgrounds and disciplines. This can be a challenge, as each profession has its own unique culture and set of expectations. Nurse managers must be able to create an inclusive team environment where everyone feels valued and respected.
  • Addressing staff shortages and burnout: Nurse shortages are a major problem in many parts of the country, and this can make it difficult for nurse managers to staff their units adequately. Nurse managers must also be aware of the signs and symptoms of burnout in their staff and take steps to prevent and address it.
  • Ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements: Nurse managers are responsible for ensuring that their units and staff comply with all applicable regulatory requirements. This can be a complex and time-consuming task, but it is essential to ensure that patients are receiving safe and quality care.

Additional Challenges

In addition to the challenges listed above, nurse managers may also face the following challenges:

  • Managing patient expectations
  • Dealing with difficult patients and families
  • Resolving conflicts between staff members
  • Advocating for patients and staff
  • Staying up-to-date on the latest clinical research and best practices.

Solutions to the Challenges faced by Nurse Managers

Challenge: Managing in a constantly changing system

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to adapt to change quickly and effectively. They must be able to identify and assess the impact of changes on their units and staff, and develop and implement strategies to address these changes. Nurse managers must also be able to communicate changes to staff and patients in a clear and concise manner.

Challenge: Delivering quality care within cost constraints

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to identify and implement cost-effective strategies to deliver high-quality care. This may involve negotiating with vendors for lower prices, implementing new technologies that can improve efficiency, or redesigning care processes to reduce waste. Nurse managers must also be able to track and monitor costs to ensure that they are staying within budget.

Challenge: Adapting to new technologies and practices

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be willing to embrace new technologies and practices that can improve patient care. They must be able to evaluate new technologies and practices to determine their potential benefits and risks, and develop and implement strategies to implement these new technologies and practices in a way that benefits patients and staff. Nurse managers must also be able to provide training and support to staff on new technologies and practices.

Challenge: Managing diverse teams of professionals

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to create a cohesive team environment where everyone feels valued and respected. They must be able to communicate effectively with staff from a variety of backgrounds and disciplines, and resolve conflicts between staff members. Nurse managers must also be able to provide support and guidance to staff, and help them to develop their skills and knowledge.

Challenge: Addressing staff shortages and burnout

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to identify and address the causes of staff shortages and burnout. This may involve implementing strategies to improve working conditions, such as providing more flexible scheduling or offering tuition reimbursement. Nurse managers must also be able to provide support and resources to staff who are experiencing burnout, such as counseling or stress management programs.

Challenge: Ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be familiar with all applicable regulatory requirements and develop and implement strategies to ensure that their units and staff are in compliance. This may involve creating policies and procedures, providing training to staff, and conducting regular audits to ensure compliance.

Additional Challenges and Solutions

Challenge: Managing patient expectations

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to communicate effectively with patients and families to manage their expectations. They must be able to explain the realities of the healthcare system and the limitations of care. Nurse managers must also be able to provide support and guidance to patients and families as they navigate the healthcare system.

Challenge: Dealing with difficult patients and families

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to deal with difficult patients and families in a professional and compassionate manner. They must be able to identify the underlying causes of difficult behavior and develop strategies to address these behaviors. Nurse managers must also be able to provide support and guidance to staff who are dealing with difficult patients and families.

Challenge: Resolving conflicts between staff members

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to resolve conflicts between staff members in a fair and impartial manner. They must be able to identify the underlying causes of conflict and develop strategies to address these causes. Nurse managers must also be able to provide support and guidance to staff who are involved in conflicts.

Challenge: Advocating for patients and staff

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to advocate for their patients and staff. They must be able to speak up for their patients’ needs and ensure that they receive the best possible care. Nurse managers must also be able to advocate for their staff’s needs and ensure that they have the resources and support they need to provide quality care.

Challenge: Staying up-to-date on the latest clinical research and best practices

  • Solution: Nurse managers must be able to stay up-to-date on the latest clinical research and best practices. They must be able to identify and evaluate new research findings and determine their potential impact on patient care. Nurse managers must also be able to implement new best practices into their units and staff.

Management Theories and Styles

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