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Teaching Methodology Past Papers Review Read More »
The Trainee’s research report consists of the following:
Each Chapter of the Trainee’s research shall consist of the following:
This Chapter should be structured as follows:
This Chapter should be 3-5 Pages and arranged as follows:
Chapter three (3) should be structured as follows:
This Chapter should be 3-5 Pages and structured as follows:
This Chapter should be structured as follows:
| Feature | Research Proposal | Research Report |
|---|---|---|
| Title Pages | One title page. | Two title pages. |
| Tense | Written in the future tense (e.g., "This study will investigate..."). | Written in the past tense (e.g., "This study investigated..."). |
| Abstract | Not included/applicable. | Summarizes the completed research, including objectives, methods, actual results, and conclusions derived. |
| Declaration | Focuses on the originality and ethical conduct planned for the research. | Declares the originality of the completed work and confirms adherence to ethical standards during the research. |
| Approval | Typically an approval from the supervisor or research committee for the proposed study. | Contains approvals for the completed research from relevant authorities or committees, confirming the final submission. |
| Copyright | Not applicable as the work is yet to be completed. | Reflects the copyright status of the completed work, protecting the intellectual property of the final report. |
| Authorization Page | Not applicable (authorizations are for the execution of the study). | Contains authorizations and approvals granted for the conduct of the study and the submission of the completed work. |
| Dedication | Not applicable. | Can include a dedication to individuals, groups, or entities who provided support or inspiration during the research process. |
| Acknowledgement | Not applicable. | Acknowledges actual support received (financial, technical, intellectual, personal) during the research execution. |
| List of Tables & Figures | Not applicable (tables/figures are generally expected but not yet finalized). | Lists actual tables and figures used in the completed report, along with their page numbers. |
| Main Body (Chapters) | Chapters 1-3:
|
Chapters 1-5:
|
| Appendices | May include proposed research tools (e.g., draft questionnaire), projected budget, and planned workplan. | Omits budget and workplan (as they are part of the planning/execution phase), includes actual final research tools used, consent forms, authorization letters, and a plagiarism report. |
| Additional Pages | N/A. | May include an introductory letter accompanying the final report to provide context for the completed work. |
Beyond the completion of a research report, it is crucial to disseminate the findings. Dissemination refers to the strategies employed by the researcher to ensure that individuals concerned with or interested in the research findings become aware of the study and its outcomes.
These strategies include:
This is the results section of your research report. It primarily involves the presentation of data, often in statistical forms.
Statistical data refers to all numerical descriptions of events, things, or objects. They take the form of counting or measurements, e.g., sex and age distribution of children with diarrheal diseases, clinically diagnosed cases of malaria.
These are the different means of organizing, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data for a better understanding of a phenomenon, allowing for sound decisions/conclusions.
Statistical methods can be broadly categorized as:
A statistical variable refers to any measurable characteristic that assumes a different value among individuals or subjects, e.g., temperature, blood pressure, age, weight, etc.
Statistical variables can be:
Data presentation is important in any research study. It helps to summarize all the raw data into information that can be easily read and appreciated by other readers of your work. Data can be presented in the form of tables, figures (i.e., graphs, pie charts, line graphs, histograms, etc.). These form visual aids that help the reader to quickly understand the information.
This section of the research report deals with discussions of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the study findings. In the recommending sections, you also highlight the nursing implications of the study findings.
Appendices refer to the different supporting documents that contain any additional information needed to enable professionals to follow your research procedures and data analysis.
An appendix is a page that contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper.
Appendices appear just after the reference list
In a proposal book, reference list appears immediately after chapter three
(methodology) and in the report reference list appears after chapter five.
Each appendix must be referred to by name e.g (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, etc.) in the text of the paper
To refer to the Appendix within your text, write, (see Appendix A) at the end of the sentence in parentheses. Example:
In addition to the limitations of email, Dansons et al. (2012) reviewed studies that focused on international bank employees and college students (see Appendix B for demographic information).
These appendices should be labeled; e.g
Appendix 1: Work plan
Appendix 2: Budget
Appendix 3: Consent form .
Appendix 4: Data collection tools or instruments
Appendix 5: Maps showing location of the study area
Consent form is the document that shows that the informed consent process has taken place.
Informed consent is the permission granted in the knowledge of the possible consequences, given by the respondent to the researcher for participating in the study (with full knowledge of possible risks and benefits).
In research autonomy is protected by ensuring that the patient consents
A study timetable is an easy, inexpensive tool that can help you get control over your study time.
It will give you perspective on what you need to accomplish and the time you have to do it in.
If you want to get organized and feel motivated to get your work done to the best of your potential, try putting together a personalized study timetable.
In research, it is referred to as a work plan
The Gantt Chart
What is a Gantt Chart?
The Gantt Chart is a planning tool that shows graphically the order in which various tasks must be implemented (done) and the duration of each activity.
References refers to a list of all intext cited works.
The researcher is supposed to develop a reference list at the end of your proposal. This list enables the reader or user of this proposal to conveniently retrieve each of the sources of information that the researcher reviewed.
Whenever you use someone else’s words or ideas in your research paper, you must indicate that this information is borrowed by quoting the source of information in the paper itself (in text referencing), and at the end of the paper (reference list). This applies to written sources you have used such as books, articles web pages, e.t.c
Reference is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in the research paper.
Referencing is a crucial part of successful academic writing, avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity in your assignments and research.
A referencing style is a set of rules on how to acknowledge the thoughts, ideas and works of others in a particular way.
In your document, referencing is done at two levels; first you need to give a brief reference in the body of text called “in-text citation”, and secondly a detailed reference is provided at the end of the document in the form of a list.
The two commonest styles used are;
MLA (Modern Language Association) style.
Other styles are;
APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author’s last name and the year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style recommended by the American Psychological Association and used in many of the social sciences
It is the Author Prominent Style of Referencing
(Ghaznavi, 2003).
2. If a page number follows the publication year, a comma is added. Example:
(Ghaznavi, 2003, p. 40).
3. Alternatively, the author’s name can be written outside the bracket. Example:
Ghaznavi (2003, p. 40) observes…
4. Punctuation marks come after the citation, not before.
When you provide an in-text citation in the body of your writing, any punctuation marks, such as commas or periods, should come after the citation.
For example:
Incorrect: “This is an important point, (Smith, 2021).”
In the correct example, the period is placed after the citation within the parentheses/brackets. This is to ensure that the citation is clearly associated with the information it is referencing, and punctuation does not interfere with the citation’s structure.
2. Only sources cited in the work are listed.
3. Double line spacing is used between each entry.
4. Each reference has a hanging indent, where the first line is flushed to the left margin, and remaining lines are indented.
In-text Citation and Reference List Entry for Two Authors:
(Alvi & Zaidi, 2009).
Alvi, M. H. & Zaidi, R. (2009).
(Alvi, Ghaznavi, Hashmi, Siddiqui & Zaidi, 2009).
(Alvi et al., 2009).
Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Hashmi, M., Siddiqui, D. & Zaidi, R. (2009). <title>.
(Alvi et al., 2009).
Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Afridi, S., Zaidi, R., Hashmi, M. & Siddiqui, D. (2009).
(Alvi et al., 2009).
Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Afridi, S., Zaidi, R., Hashmi, M. & Siddiqui, D.,…., Qureshi, T.R. (2009).
Khalid Ghaznavi is written as Ghaznavi K
Mohsin Hasan Alvi is written as Alvi MH
1. What are the similarities between APA an Harvard styles of referencing?
2. What are the major differences?
3. Examine the differences between list of references and bibliography?
Similarities between APA and Harvard styles of referencing:
Purpose: Both APA and Harvard styles aim to provide clear and consistent guidelines for citing sources in academic writing. They help to ensure that readers can easily identify and locate the sources used in a research paper or other academic work.
Author-date system: Both APA and Harvard styles utilize the author-date system for in-text citations. This means that the author’s last name and the year of publication are included in parentheses within the text to indicate the source of the information.
Alphabetical arrangement: Both APA and Harvard styles require that the reference list or bibliography be arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name. This makes it easy for readers to find the full bibliographic information for each source.
Major differences between APA and Harvard styles:
In-text citations: APA and Harvard styles differ in the specific format for in-text citations. APA uses the author-date system with parentheses around the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number (if applicable). Harvard style omits the parentheses and uses a comma after the author’s last name, followed by a period, the year of publication, and a colon before the page number (if applicable).
Reference list vs. bibliography: APA uses a reference list, which includes all sources cited in the paper, whether they are books, articles, websites, or other formats. Harvard uses a bibliography, which includes only sources that are referred to or mentioned in the paper.
Formatting: APA and Harvard styles have different formatting requirements for the reference list or bibliography. APA uses specific indentation rules, double spacing, and a hanging indent for each entry. Harvard uses a consistent indentation for all entries, single spacing, and no hanging indent.
5 differences between list of references and bibliography:
Scope: A list of references includes all sources that are cited in the paper, while a bibliography includes only sources that are referred to or mentioned in the paper.
Completeness: A list of references should include complete bibliographic information for each source, while a bibliography may include abbreviated or incomplete information, depending on the style guide.
Purpose: A list of references is primarily used to provide a record of the sources used in the paper, while a bibliography may also serve as a guide for further reading or research.
Ordering: A list of references is normally ordered alphabetically by author’s last name, while a bibliography may be organized differently, such as by topic or chronology.
Labeling: A list of references is labeled as “References,” while a bibliography may be labeled as “Works Cited,” “Bibliography,” or “Literature Cited.”
References and Appendices Read More »
Research instruments refers to the tools you are going to use to answer your objectives.
The researcher is supposed to explain the different methods that he/she intends to use during data collection. However, the research must put into consideration the research approach adopted (Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed Methods), this will help the researcher in choosing the most appropriate research method to adopt.
Furthermore the researcher should as well put into consideration the type of data to be collected whether its primary data, Secondary data or a combination of both primary and secondary data. This will equally guide during the process of selecting the most appropriate data collection methods.
Some of the data collection methods include; Questionnaire Survey, Interviews, Documentary Review, Focus Group Discussions, Observations and Experiments among others.
The primary methods employed for data collection consist of:
Data collection instruments refer to the tools that the researcher will use for collecting the relevant data related to the study objectives.
The researcher is therefore supposed to use this section to discuss the different data collection instruments s/he will adopt during the research, to state the data collection instrument, then briefly explain how it will be structured and the types of questions you expect to ask using the instrument.
For the case of questionnaires and interviews, the researcher must clearly state whether they will be structured or not & whether they will be self-administered or not. Therefore, the researcher is supposed to provide the basic information about the data collection instrument that will be adopted.
While as the data collection method was a questionnaire survey, its corresponding data collection instrument is the questionnaire or a questionnaire guide.
The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what a questionnaire is, explain how the questionnaire will be structured, explain the types of questions that you have in the instrument (whether open-ended, closed ended or both), explain whether you will use a Likert scale questionnaire or instrument, explain whether the questionnaire will be mailed, self-administered or web-based and as well explain whether it will be a structured, semi-structured or unstructured instrument.
This section is supposed to enable the reader understand how your questionnaire will be composed.
In the case that the researcher adopted interviews or interviewing as the data collection method, then the data collection instrument would be the interview guide.
An interview guide is therefore a data collection instrument that supports the researcher through directing an interview process towards the objectives and issues regarding the study.
The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what an interview guide is, explain how the interview guide will be structured, explain the types of questions that will be asked (whether open-ended, closed-ended or mixed), explain whether it will be a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview, The researcher is also supposed to explain whether it will be a Directly personal interview, Telephone interview, Panel interview, Group interview or a Video conferencing interview.
This section is supposed to enable the reader to understand all the questions of; Who, Why, When, How and Where about your interview guide.
While as the data collection method was observation, its corresponding data collection instrument is the observation checklist.
An observation checklist is therefore a list of items that a researcher/ observer intends to observe (look at, hear, taste, smell or touch) during the data collection process.
The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what an observation checklist is, how an observation checklist will be structured, explain the items in the observation checklist and further explain for how long he/she intends to observe. Say everything about your observation checklist.
This section is supposed to explain whether the observation will be; Participatory, Non-participatory or Covert-observation and how it will be executed.
Therefore, this section is supposed to enable the reader understand how your observation checklist will be composed.
Researchers must note that if the data collection method was Focus Group Discussion, then the data collection instrument is a Focus Group Discussion Guide.
A Focus Group Discussion Guide is a data collection instrument that supports the researcher through streamlining particular processes or advising on how the Focus Group Discussion will be conducted in order to achieve its predetermined objectives.
The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what a Focus Group Discussion Guide is, how the FGDG will be structured, explain the types of questions that will be asked (they are usually open-ended questions), explain the number of members that each FGD will have, explain how long each FGD will last, explain the composition of each FGD, whether the moderator will be the researcher or an appointed research assistant and how many FGDs will be conducted.
In case the researcher chose experiment as the data collection method, then the data collection instrument will be the experimental checklist.
An experimental checklist therefore refers to a list of all the relevant scientific procedures that the researcher has to undertake while collecting data about the dependent and independent variables during an experiment.
This section can as well be referred to as validity and reliability. It's usually subdivided into two subsection validity and Reliability. The researcher is supposed to use this section to briefly but clearly explain how s/he will test for the validity and reliability of the research instruments.
Validity refers to the extent to which research instrument correctly measures what the researcher wants to measure. Therefore validity is about credibility or trustworthiness or accuracy or correctness of the research instrument.
The researcher is therefore supposed to provide a brief meaning of validity. Explain how s/he will ensure validity of the instruments. If you are to pre-test ensure that you explain the category of respondents that you will consider for the pilot study and how you will select them. Explain how you will carry-out the pilot study, Explain how you will go about managing the findings of the pre-test, the lessons learnt out of the pre-test and how you will go about redesigning the data collection instrument (s) (just in case the pre-test results deem it necessary).
Reliability basically refers to consistency of a research instrument. Therefore reliability of a research instrument can easily be defined as the ability of a research instrument to yield the same results once used repeatedly over a given period of time while measuring the same variable(s).
The researcher is therefore supposed to provide a brief description of reliability. Explain how s/he will ensure reliability of the instrument(s). If you are to pilot test ensure that you explain the category of respondents that you will consider for the pilot study and how you will select them.
Explain how you will carry-out the pilot study, Explain how you will go about managing the findings of the pilot study, the lessons learnt out of the pilot and how you will go about redesigning the data collection instrument (s) (just in case the pilot results deem it necessary).
The key tools utilized for data collection include:
The researcher is supposed to briefly describe this method of data collection, provide a justification for choosing this method of data collection, explain the type of data he/she expects to collect while using this method, the type of instrument that will support this data collection method and as well which category of the population will be subject to this data collection method.
A questionnaire survey is a data collection method mainly aimed towards collecting quantitative data where the researcher designs a set of questions related to the study objectives for purpose of collecting the required data.
The researcher is supposed to briefly describe this method of data collection, provide a brief justification for choosing this method of data collection, describe which type of data is expected to be collected using this method, which instrument will support this data collection method and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.
Interviewing is a method of data collection that involves verbal or non-verbal exchanges between an interviewer(s) and an interviewee(s) where the interviewer asks questions related to the study objective(s) and the interviewee provides suitable responses based on his knowledge and experience.
Interviewing is the most commonly used method of data collection in social sciences, it's therefore close to impossible to conduct a social science research without using interviews as a method of data collection. Interviews are usually used by researchers to find out the attitudes and perceptions of the informants about certain study variables.
While planning to collect data, a researcher who has chosen to use interviewing as one of the data collection methods should as well plan for the specific type of interview he/ she will adopt.
There are 3 basic forms of interviews, these include;
This refers to how the researcher executes the interview. In most cases researchers may use; Telephone interviewing, Face-to-Face interviewing or group interviewing among others. This choice greatly depends on the researchers interests.
These are issues that a researcher must reflect on before taking any form of interview; they include;
The researcher is supposed to briefly describe this data collection method, provide a brief justification for choosing this method, describe the type of data he/she expects to collect using this method, the instrument that will support this method of data collection and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.
Observation as a data collection method therefore refers to the process of the researcher regarding attentively or watching the actions, behaviors and code of conduct for a given population for purposes of making inferences.
The researcher may observe through;
There are three types of observation from which researchers may choose the most appropriate method for their study. These include;
For example;
While observing, the researcher should do the following;
Used for educational research to assess achievement or intelligence quotient.
The researcher is supposed to briefly describe the meaning of this method of data collection, provide a brief justification for choosing this method of data collection, describe which type of data is expected to be collected using this method, the instrument to be used and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.
Focus Group Discussion is therefore a data collection method mainly for collection of qualitative data in which a manageable group of people of a given study population are carefully selected into a discussion guided by a moderator/ facilitator (researcher) to freely articulate their perceptions, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, ideas and experiences about a certain topic of interest.
For additional advantages and disadvantages, refer to those of a questionnaire.
The researcher is supposed to briefly describe the meaning of this method of data collection, describe which type of data is expected to be collected using this method, provide a brief justification for choosing this method of data collection, the instrument of data collection that will be used specifically for this method and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.
Experiments help the researcher to collect quantitative data. It's therefore, a scientific procedure of data collection where the researcher sets up two equivalent groups/cohorts (Treatment group and Control group) then randomly selects elements into the treatment and control groups and subjects the treatment to an intervention but leaves the control without the intervention and then closely monitors the changes.
Research Methods and Instruments For Data Collection Read More »
Sample size determination, also known as sample size calculation or sample size estimation, is the process of determining the number of individuals or items to be included in a sample from a larger population for a research study.
1. Census (for Small Populations):
A census involves including every member of the population in your sample. This method is highly advantageous for small populations because it eliminates sampling errors and provides data on every individual in the population.
NOTE: census is only feasible for small populations. Conducting a census for large populations may not be cost-effective and practical.
2. Transfer from a Similar Study:
Another approach is to transfer the sample size from a similar study with comparable objectives and characteristics. This strategy can save time and resources.
A potential disadvantage is that you might repeat the mistakes made in the previous study. Ensure the previous study was methodologically sound.
3. Using Internet Sample Size Calculators: This method utilizes the Internet sites that help one to determine the sample.
One Examples is: https://www.calculator.net/sample-size-calculator.html
4. Utilizing Published Tables:
Researchers can make use of published tables designed for sample size determination. One such example is the Krejcie & Morgan table of 1970, which helps researchers determine the sample size for a given population. Another example is Glenn(1992).
For example a For a population of 45 people, Krejcie & Morgan table advises a Sample of 40 people.
For 10 people, Sample is 10, requiring a Census due to the small number of people.
These tables are a valuable resource and provide guidance on sample size selection, taking into account factors like population size, confidence levels, and error margins.
5. Applying Standardized Formulas:
A widely accepted method involves applying standardized sample size formulas, such as the one developed by
Kish and Leslie in 1965.
The formula is as follows:
n = Z²pq / d²,
where
Using Kish and Leslie Formula:
n = Z²pq / d²
Where:
n = (1.96)² X 0.40 X (1 – 0.40) / (0.05)²
n ≈ 346.18
In this scenario, you would need a sample size of approximately 347 diabetic patients attending Goma Health Center in Mukono District to estimate the true population prevalence with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error.
II. Yamane formula, developed by Taro Yamane in 1967.
The formula is as follows:
n = N / (1 + Ne²)
Where:
n = 500 / (1 + 500 X (0.05)²)
n ≈ 333.33
In this scenario, you would need a sample size of approximately 333 diabetic patients attending Goma Health Center in Mukono District to achieve the desired level of precision (5%).
6. USING UNMEB GUIDELINES
A sampling procedure is a defined and systematic method for selecting a subset (sample) from a larger group (population) for the purpose of conducting research or collecting data.
It involves the steps and techniques used to ensure that the sample accurately represents the population, allowing researchers to draw meaningful conclusions from the sample’s data.
Sample Size Determination Read More »
INTRODUCTION
Education is an activity in which a variety of resources are put, these resources include money, time, labor, instructional materials, etc. We need to find out whether we are benefiting from putting all these resources into the education of our learners. To do this, we use measurement, assessment, testing, and evaluation.
Evaluation
Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information that determines the effectiveness (value) of an educational program in the light of evidence obtained through research, assessment, measurement, testing, experimenting, and consulting. Thus, evaluation can also be defined as the process of judging the value or worth of an individual’s achievements. It attempts to provide useful feedback information to stakeholders. It facilitates the judgment of what extent the educational objectives have been met.
Assessments
In education, the term assessment means the process of documenting in quantitative terms the knowledge, skills, and values attained by the learner. Currently in Ugandan higher institutions, there is continuous assessment being emphasized. The results of continuous assessment help teachers keep an accumulative record that may be used to assess the overall performance of the learner.
Testing
This is a way of discovering by questions or practical activities what someone knows or what someone can do. Educationally, we test our learners to find out how much knowledge and skills they possess, and what values and attributes they have developed.
Measurement
This refers to assigning numbers to a learning program or event in order to describe or represent the amount of abilities, characteristics, and potential possessed by a learner. Measurement describes a situation in quantitative terms, while evaluation judges its worth or value in qualitative terms, such as good or poor.
Diagnosis: It helps us to understand the problem existing within the program; therefore, appropriate action can be taken.
Placement and Promotion (Selection): It helps us correctly find where the individual should belong, i.e., who can be promoted to another class or who goes for which course based on aggregates, e.g., primary leavers are selected according to aggregate got, i.e., whether a student of aggregate 6 can go to Kisubi or whether a student who did MEG can do law.
Certification: It is the only way one can satisfy the assessment committee to provide evidence about the attainment of a particular skill, e.g., a degree certificate, driving permit, etc.
Standards: It helps the teachers to establish a reference point, i.e., the minimum entry point, e.g., At UNMEB exams, a standard is 50% in every paper, which was determined based on how students used to score in the past.
Prediction: The stakeholders are able to determine the future potentials/weaknesses of individuals, e.g., a student who performs well in Physics is likely to be an engineer.
Refinement: The information from the evaluation can help us to improve on the programs by identifying where we are weak. E.g., a teacher looks at the students’ work and sees what topic they have failed, then the teacher tries to simplify his/her teaching.
Norms referencing: It helps us to compare an individual against other individuals or against the system. E.g., a student in the 5th position out of 40 students can be determined by assessments.
Remediation: Results of assessment are a basis for correcting learning responses and clarification of misconceptions. A teacher might decide to organize a remedial class to correct the challenges that students faced during assessments.
Motivation: Feedback from assessment is motivation for future aspiration among learners. For example, a student can be motivated to read harder after good performance in an exam.
Purpose of evaluation: In the evaluation of learners’ progress, one should first identify the learning outcomes to be measured. For example, in nursing education, outcomes could be that learners should possess knowledge in disease management, skills in nursing procedures, and a good attitude in patient care.
Availability of assessment tools: No single evaluation tool is adequate for assessing learners’ progress; make sure you use a variety of techniques to obtain a complete picture of the students’ achievements. Use what is available and can be administered to the learners. For example, a theory exam can evaluate learners’ knowledge, and a practical exam evaluates their skills and attitudes.
Validity: It is a concern about how well the test measures what it is supposed to measure. For example, measuring students’ intelligence using a tape measure around the circumference of the head will not provide accurate measurements of intelligence, so the validity of this tool will be weak.
Reliability: It measures how consistent the scores obtained by different examiners are, determining how stable a measurement is.
Practicality: Refers to the action of the assessment method and its relevance to the overall learning goals in the course, addressing whether or not the workload for the instructor is reasonable.
Ease of interpretation of results: The evaluation tool used should enhance the teacher’s ability to interpret the results for student performance.
Time frame: The available time determines which evaluation tool to use, allowing students to complete the assigned tasks in an appropriate time.
Costs and resources available: The evaluation should use techniques that are economical and require little funds, human resources, and time.
There are two major forms to evaluate a student’s learning:
Functions of Formative Assessment:
There are two types of interpreting measurements:
Norm-Referenced Measurement:
Criterion-Referenced Measurement:
There are various ways through which assessment and evaluations can be conducted in classrooms. These include:
a) Observation
b) Oral examinations
c) Written examinations
d) Practical examinations
Observation involves assessing one’s academic progress based on observation by the teacher.
It can involve seeing students’ behavior and listening to oral contributions to evaluate the learners’ attitude, learning speed, style, intelligence, personal abilities, and progress. This technique can detect problems immediately so that corrective measures can be employed, but it’s prone to prejudice and bias from the teacher as the observer.
Oral examinations involve a face-to-face question and answer between the teacher (examiner) and the student (examinee).
The teacher asks questions and finally scores the candidate based on the quality of the responses from the learner. Examples include interviews, quizzes, panel discussions, case presentations, etc. In nursing, traditional oral practical exams were conducted where the teacher would vary questions asked from one student to another.
Teacher-made tests are the most widely used written examination for assessing learning. The construction of these tests fundamentally depends on the teacher and can be categorized into two types: Objective and Subjective tests.
Objective tests predominantly assess using short responses or answers. They include multiple-choice, true/false (binary test), matching, and completion (fill-in) questions.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ’s):
MCQs present a statement or question to which several responses are given, with only one response being correct. The statement/item is referred to as the stem, the correct response as the Key, and other options or alternative responses as destructors.
Guidelines for Preparing Meaningful MCQs
Matching Items
Matching items present students with a list of statements and a list of responses, with a set of directions for matching them.
Guidelines for Preparing Matching Tests
Binary Test
This type involves a statement or item to which judgment is made either in agreement or disagreement, typically with forms like true or false, agree or disagree, and yes or no.
Guidelines for Binary Test Preparation
Completion/Fill-in-Blanks Tests
Such a test requires that spaces are left between the items so that the respondent can fill them in with one word or many words.
Guidelines for Fill-In Test Preparation (Completion/Fill-in-Blanks Tests)
Such a test requires that spaces are left between the items so that the respondent can fill them in with one word or many words.
This is a mode in which each question or item requires an elaborate description and explanation. Therefore, there is no exact or simple answer. They include short-answer and essay items.
Short-Answer Items:
Essay Items:
Guidelines for Preparing a Good Subjective Assessment
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Read More »
Lesson plan is a plan prepared by a teacher to teach a lesson in an organized manner.
It is obtained from the scheme of work which was designed earlier.(Scheme of work)
LESSON PLAN 1
SET: DN-2
COURSE UNIT: MEDICAL NURSING II
TUTOR: NASES REVIJONI
| Date | Time | Average Age of Students | Expected Number of Students | Number of Students Present |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 29/10/2023 | 8:00-9:00 AM (1 HOUR) | Above 20 years | 5 |
Topic: DIABETES MELLITUS (DM)
Objectives:
By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
Teaching Methods/Techniques:
Teaching Aids:
References:
| Time and Step | Content | Tutor’s Activities | Student’s Activities |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 (02 minutes) | Greeting Roll call | – Greets students – Makes roll call by calling students’ names | – Respond to greeting – Respond to their names |
| 2 (05 minutes) | Review of previous lesson | – Reviews previous lesson by asking students about what was covered in that lesson. | – Respond to teacher’s questions |
| 3 (05 minutes) | Introduction of the lesson objectives on Diabetes Mellitus | – Displays flip chart containing lesson objectives – Chooses one student to read what has been displayed – Provides clear linkage between previous and current lesson | -look at flip chart contents -reads what is displayed on flipchart and others listen -listen to the linkage between previous and current lesson |
| 4 (13 minutes) | Signs and symptoms of DM | – Asks students to contribute to signs and symptoms of DM using mind-mapping brain storming technique -Clarifies the signs and symptoms of DM | -come and write their contributes on white board in a ‘mind-map – listen and take notes |
| 5 (25 minutes) | Pathophysiology of DM | – Asks students the meaning of | -Respond to the meaning of patho-physiology -listen to the clarification -form pairs to disouss how signs of DM manifest -present the allocated task that has been discussed in there group. – look at the displayed chart. – listen to teacher’s explanations. – draw flow diagram on patho-physiology of DM. |
| 6 (10 minutes) | Evaluation and Conclusion of Lesson | -Evaluates lesson by asking
2.Apart from diagnostic testing,
necessary to be done on a DM patient and their rationale | -Student respond to questions asked -Students listen to teachers summary -Students listen and note down the assignment -Student respond to teacher’s appreciation |
CHALK/WHITEBOARD PLAN
| Date | Content | New Words |
|---|---|---|
| 29/10/2022 | Greeting, Roll call, Review of previous lesson, Introduction of the lesson objectives on Diabetes Mellitus, Signs and symptoms of DM, Patho-physiology of DM | Diabetes Mellitus, patho-physiology, mind-mapping, brain storming, allocations. |
| Strength | Challenges | Way Forward |
|---|---|---|
| Teamwork | Limited resources | Resource mobilization and optimization |
This is a plan prepared by a teacher to conduct a practical session in an organized manner. Its different from lesson plan as shown below.
NURSES REVISION SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES
CLINICAL SESSION PLAN 1
COURSE: DIPLOMA IN NURSING
COURSE UNIT: MEDICAL NURSING II
LECTURER: NASESI REVISION
| Date | Time | Average Age of Students | Expected Number of Students | Number of Students Present |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 29/10/2022 | 30 minutes | Above 20 years | 5 |
Topic: INSULIN ADMINISTRATION
Objectives: By the end of the clinical session, students should be able to;
Teaching Methods/Techniques: Demonstration and return demonstration technique.
Teaching Aids:
References:
| Step and Time | Content | Tutor’s Activities | Students’ Activities |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 (05 minutes) | Pre-conferencing about procedure on insulin administration | – Greets students – Briefs students on the procedure of insulin administration – Assembles requirements – Cautions students on infection prevention and ethical issues | – Respond to greeting – Listen to the tutor’s briefing on the procedure of insulin administration – Observe the requirements needed – Listen to the cautions on the procedure |
| 2 (10 minutes) | Demonstration of the procedure on insulin administration | – Demonstrates procedure step by step while briefing students on key steps;
| – Observe attentively tutor performing the procedure of insulin administration |
| 3 (10 minutes) | Return demonstration of the procedure on insulin administration | – Requests one student to do a return demonstration on insulin administration – Allocates tasks on the procedure to other students – Observes the student performing the procedure – Scores the student using a checklist and also allocates other 2 students to score their colleague | – One volunteers to perform a return demonstration – Everyone performs the allocated task – Performs a return procedure on insulin administration while others observe – The 2 students also score their colleague as he/she performs step by step |
| 4 (05 minutes) | Post-conferencing | – Asks the volunteer student to evaluate him/herself – Requests other students to critique the volunteer student – Gives feedback about the procedure of insulin administration – Encourages the students to keep practicing when they get time in order to perfect | – The volunteer students evaluate him/herself – Other students evaluate their colleague – Students listen to the students’ feedback |
COMMENTS/SELF EVALUATION
| Strength | Challenges | Way Forward |
|---|---|---|
| Effective pre-conferencing to prepare students | Time constraints during practical sessions | Allocate more time for practical sessions |
| Clear and organized demonstration of the procedure | Ensuring that every student gets the opportunity to perform the return demonstration | Rotate students to perform return demonstrations |
| Encouraging self-evaluation and peer evaluation | Scoring can be subjective; may need a more objective scoring system | Implement a standardized scoring system and provide clear criteria for scoring |
| Active student participation during the session | Availability of required equipment and materials for practical sessions may be a challenge | Ensure that all necessary equipment is readily available |
| Providing constructive feedback to students | Maintaining students’ motivation and enthusiasm for continuous practice | Organize periodic practice sessions to sustain students’ interest |
Scheme(teacher’s scheme) of work is, therefore, their plan of action, which should enable them to organize teaching activities ahead of time.
It is a summarized forecast of work that the teacher considers adequate and appropriate for the class to cover within a given period from those topics already set in the syllabus.
A scheme of work can be made to cover one week, one month, one term, or even one year, depending on the duration of a given program. Ideally, schemes of work should be prepared before classes begin.
Week: Most institutions are specific in time allocation, and each week should be spelled out in the week column. Weeks should be separated by a line running across the page, especially when the same scheme of work form contains more than one week.
Number of Periods: The subject may have one, two, or more periods in one week. Some periods may be single, double, or triple. When two spaced periods are indicated on the timetable in the same week, then there should be two distinct rows for two periods. The numbering process should be repeated for the other weeks.
Topic/Sub-topic: The topics in the syllabus need to be rearranged in the order in which they are supposed to be taught, e.g., teaching-learning process. This should be clear and definite. The instructor should single out all the sub-topics/lesson titles in a particular syllabus topic.
Objectives: Each sub-topic/lesson title should be followed by an objective(s), which is meant to pinpoint the anticipated learning behavior of the learners.
Content: What subject matter will be covered in that period. It includes all the important headings based on the objectives.
Methods/Techniques: Teaching methods and techniques to be used. This depends on the set objectives of that period.
Teaching Aids: Resource materials for specific content coverage used in scheming are necessary and should be noted down with their relevant pages for ease in reference during lesson planning. References include chalkboards, books, handouts, reports, etc.
Teacher’s References: The various sources of reference that the teacher used to gather the content of that lesson.
Students’ References: What references does the teacher recommend students to use for further reading and when doing assignments? These need to be part of the teacher’s references that are accessible to learners, simpler to understand, and rich in content.
Remarks/Comment: Remarks in the scheme of work should be made immediately the lesson is over. The teacher is supposed to indicate whether what was planned for the period has been covered, whether there was overplanning or a failure of the lesson and reasons for either case.
SCHOOL: NURSES REVISION SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES
TUTOR’S NAME: NASES REVIJONI
COURSE: DIPLOMA IN NURSING
COURSE UNIT: MEDICAL NURSING II
YEAR OF STUDY: YEAR TWO, SEMESTER ONE
NO. OF PERIODS PER WEEK: 3 (1 HOUR EACH)
| Week | Number of Periods | Topic | Sub-topic | Objectives | Content | Methods/Techniques | Teaching Aids | Teacher’s References | Students’ References | Remarks/Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | MEDICAL CONDITIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM | Diabetes mellitus (DM) | By the end of the week, students should be able to:
|
| Interactive lecture, Brainstorming technique, Question and answer technique | Whiteboard illustrations, Flip chart containing lesson objectives & pointer | Workman and Donna. 2006, Berkow and Beers. 1999, Stephen. 2009, UCG. 2016 | Workman and Donna. 2006, Stephen. 2009, Signs and symptoms of DM, Brainstorming technique, Whiteboard illustrations, 2 Flip charts containing Workman and Donna. 2006, Workman and Donna. 2006 | Remarks should be made immediately after the lesson. The teacher should indicate whether what was planned for the period has been covered, whether there was overplanning or a failure of the lesson and reasons for either case. |
| 2 | MEDICAL CONDITIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM | Signs and symptoms of DM | By the end of the week, students should be able to:
|
| Interactive lecture, Brainstorming technique, Question and answer technique | Whiteboard illustrations, Flip chart containing lesson objectives & pointer | Workman and Donna. 2006, Berkow and Beers. 1999, Stephen. 2009, UCG. 2016 | Workman and Donna. 2006, Stephen. 2009, Signs and symptoms of DM, Brainstorming technique, Whiteboard illustrations, 2 Flip charts containing Workman and Donna. 2006, Workman and Donna. 2006 | Remarks should be made immediately after the lesson. The teacher should indicate whether what was planned for the period has been covered, whether there was overplanning or a failure of the lesson and reasons for either case. |
REFERENCES:
Berkow, R., & Beers, M. H. (1999). The Merck Manual of Medical Information. West Point, USA: Merck Research Laboratories.
David, K. M. (2018). General Principles of Insulin Therapy in Diabetes Mellitus. UpToDate. Retrieved from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/general-principles-of-insulin-therapy-in-diabetes-mellitus.
Stephen R. Bloom (Ed.). (2009). Toohey’s Medicine, a Textbook for Students in the Healthcare Professions (15th ed.). London, USA: Churchill Livingstone.
Uganda Catholic Medical Bureau (2015). Nursing and Midwifery Procedure Manual (2nd ed). Kampala, Uganda: Print Innovations & Publishers, pp. 166-168.
Uganda Clinical Guidelines (2016). National Guidelines for the Management of Common Conditions. Kampala, Uganda: Ministry of Health.
Workman, L. M., & Donna, D. I. (2006). Medical-Surgical: Critical Thinking for Collaborative Care (5th ed, Volumes 1 & 2). PA, USA: Elsevier Saunders.
That’s for week 1, you can add week 2, and follow the above guide! Ref: Also note that references are part of the scheme of work!
Teaching plan is a document that outlines the structure and details of a single session.
A good teaching plan is a comprehensive write-up of the step-by-step teaching methods, the estimated duration of each segment of teaching, and the materials and resources needed for the session.
Teaching planning is essential as it provides a guide for the day’s lessons and gives the teacher a clear direction for the day’s activities. Here are some key reasons for its importance:
Note: FAIL TO PLAN = PLAN TO FAIL
Needs, Capabilities, and Interests of the Learner: It’s important to understand the individual needs, capabilities, and interests of your students. This knowledge guides your teaching approach and ensures that your lessons are engaging and relevant to your learners.
Psychological Knowledge of the Learner: Familiarize yourself with what your students already know or have learned from their previous teachers. This knowledge is crucial for effective instruction and helps you build upon their existing knowledge.
Learning Experience: Define the learning experiences you want your students to gain. This will help you determine the most suitable method for delivering the content and engaging your students effectively.
Social and Physical Environment of the Learner: Create a conducive environment for learning the subject matter. Ensure that the classroom environment supports the learning objectives, making it easier for students to focus and participate.
Lesson Plan Materials/Tools: Utilize a variety of resources and materials to enhance your lesson plan’s success. Consider using audio/visual aids, the latest technologies, and library resources to support your teaching materials.
Goals and Results (Learning Objectives): Clearly outline the goals and expected results for your lesson plan and your students. This provides a clear direction for both you and your learners.
The Content/Subject Matter: Possess a thorough understanding of the content you’ll be teaching. Study the topic, and ensure you have mastery of the subject matter to effectively convey it to your students.
Evaluation and Feedback: Continuously evaluate and correct your lessons. Use methods like questions, quizzes, and feedback from both teachers and students to ensure that learning is taking place and that you have achieved your goals.
Curriculum refers to the subjects comprising a course of study in a school or college. A curriculum is also a plan or program of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school.
Official curriculum/Intended curriculum: This is the curriculum as written down on paper in syllabuses.
Actual curriculum/Operational curriculum: This is what is implemented in practice in schools.
Assessed/examined curriculum: This is that part of the taught curriculum that is actually assessed.
Null curriculum: This is curriculum that we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society, such as critical thinking, inquiry, and intellectual development.
Curriculum determinants are the factors influencing a particular type of curriculum design.
Educational philosophy: Educational philosophy is a crucial determinant of the curriculum development process by helping clarify our thought and mind process. The purpose of nursing education is to bring about desirable behavioral changes in nursing students to enable them to render comprehensive nursing.
Educational psychology: This enables us to follow the psychological development of learners and helps us know whether the children have developed adequately to be able to understand certain concepts. For example, in the first year, nurses start with microbiology, anatomy, and physiology, and then advance to medical and surgical content in the second year.
Society: There are many aspects of society that need consideration in curriculum making, such as culture, health needs, socioeconomic issues e.t.c Therefore there is need to include what is applicable and relevant to the society.
Student: Since modern curriculum is student-centered, nursing education must address the needs of the students without neglecting patient’s rights. Additionally, it should prepare students for the future by enabling them to fulfill other roles in addition to those of a professional nurse.
Knowledge: Knowledge that students need to acquire. Increased specialization has led to individuals focusing on specific segments of knowledge. For example, midwives may not study surgical nursing and medical nursing because they specialize in midwifery. This has led to an explosion of knowledge and specialization. Therefore, specific criteria should be established for selecting the knowledge to be included in a particular curriculum.
Resources: The development of a viable curriculum depends on the availability of tangible and intangible resources. Tangible resources include teachers, textbooks, and physical facilities, while intangible resources encompass motivation, interest, and intelligence.
The most commonly used model, known as Wheeler’s model, comprises five components:
AIMS, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES: Aims, goals, and objectives pertain to a terminal point towards which we are working or heading.
Aims: Aims are the broadest statements that convey the values held for an educational program. For example, the aim of universal primary education in Uganda today is to enhance socio-economic development.
Goals: Goals are a more specific form of aims. They describe the purposes of a course and provide curriculum planners with a foundation for selecting curriculum content. For instance, the goal of universal primary education is to ensure that all school-age children attend school to acquire basic education.
Objectives: Objectives are specific statements outlining what learners should be capable of doing after experiencing the curriculum or a portion of it. Objectives are categorized at two levels: Curriculum and instructional objectives.
CONTENT: Content refers to subject matter or what knowledge, concepts, principles, generalizations, theories, techniques, and procedures are to be used in a particular subject. In curriculum, the criteria for selection of content are:
Validity: Content is valid if it promotes the outcomes it is supposed to promote. This is the extent to which selected content is true.
Significance: Refers to the suitability of the material chosen to meet certain needs and ability levels of the learners.
Needs and interests of the learner: Learnability; It must also be consistent with social realities.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES: Learning experiences are the interactions between the learner and the environment within the school setting, determining what the learners will be able to do by the end of the course. Criteria for selecting learning experiences consider the following:
EVALUATION: Evaluation is the process of determining how far or to what extent the learning experiences developed, organized, and exposed are actually producing the desired outcomes. It enables comparison of actual outcomes with expected outcomes (or objectives) and leads to conclusions for further action.
A syllabus is a document that communicates information about a specific course unit and defines expectations and responsibilities. It provides relevant qualifications for teaching the class.
2. Specific course information, That tells students exactly what will be required of them throughout the course , when in the term they will be required to do what and how their work in the course will be evaluated. This section will include;
