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Report Writing

5.0 FINAL RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT

5.1 Outline of a Research Report

The Trainee’s research report consists of the following:

Main Components of a Research Report

Preliminary Pages: Pages before Chapter One numbered in Roman Numerals.
- a) Title page;
- b) Preliminary pages which include Declaration, Approval, Commitment by the Research Supervisor, Authorisation and Copyright, Dedication, Acknowledgement, Table of contents, List of Figures, Acronyms, Definition of Terms, and Abstract;
Main Body:
- c) Chapter One: Introduction;
- d) Chapter Two: Literature Review;
- e) Chapter Three: Methodology;
- f) Chapter Four: Findings of the Study;
- g) Chapter Five: Discussion, Limitations, Conclusion, Recommendations, and Nursing implications;
References:
- h) Reference list;
Appendices:
- Appendix I: Consent form
- Appendix II: Data collection tool(s) or instrument(s)
- Appendix III: Copy of Introduction letter
- Appendix IV: Letter of authorisation by authorities of study area
- Appendix V: A Copy of a letter from IRC
- Appendix VI: Maps showing location of study area
- Appendix VII: Similarity Index Report processed by “Turnitin” a plagiarism checking open-source software

Each Chapter of the Trainee’s research shall consist of the following:

5.1.1 Chapter One: Introduction

This Chapter should be structured as follows:

1.0 Introduction:
1.1. Background: This should be half a page. It must be concise and precise.
1.2 Problem Statement: This should be half a page;
1.3. Purpose of the study;
1.4 Specific objectives: These should be 2-3 SMART objectives;
1.5 Research questions;
1.6 Justification: This should include the rationale for conducting the study;
1.7 Significance: This should have the importance of contribution to academic knowledge.

5.1.2 Chapter Two: Literature Review

This Chapter should be 3-5 Pages and arranged as follows:

2.0 Introduction: This should not be more than a half page;
2.1 Body: This should be 3-5 pages.

Note: a) Include a minimum of 20 references (Books, Journals and Articles, websites and other acceptable sources); b) The oldest references should be less than 10 years before the Trainee’s year of study; c) The sub-headings of the literature review shall be in line with the specific study objectives. d) Use free sources like HINARI, Google Scholar, PubMed.

5.1.3 Chapter Three: Methodology

Chapter three (3) should be structured as follows:

3.0 Introduction;
3.1 Study design: This should include the rationale;
3.2 Study setting: This should include the rationale;
3.3. Study population;
3.4 Sample size determination and its justification: Use simple scientific method;
3.5 Sampling method/procedure: This should include the rationale;
3.6 Inclusion and exclusion criteria;
3.7. Study variables;
3.8 Research instruments/tools;
3.9 Data collection method/procedure;
3.10 Data management and analysis e.g., use of Microsoft Excel;
3.11 Quality Assurance: Validity and Reliability;
3.12 Ethical considerations;
3.13 Dissemination of study findings.

5.1.4 Chapter Four: Findings of the Study

This Chapter should be 3-5 Pages and structured as follows:

4.0 Introduction: Description of the sample size and data presentation methods;
4.1 Demographic characteristics should be preferably in one table;
4.2 Research Objective 1: Use tables and figures or use of summarised narrative statements;
4.3 Research Objective 2: Use tables and figures or use of summarised narrative statements;
4.4 Research Objective 3: Use tables and figures or use of summarised narrative statements;

Note: a) Highlight the key findings of the study in relation to the study objectives. b) Use not more than 2 tables or figures for each research objective; c) One can use narrative statements where necessary.

5.1.5 Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations

This Chapter should be structured as follows:

Introduction:

5.1.5a) Discussion

The discussions should be 2-3 pages;
It should have an introduction;
Be aligned with the study objectives and presented as subheadings;
While candidates should revisit the study findings, they should not copy and paste the findings;
Should relate to the statement of the problem and purpose of the study;
Comparisons and contrasts should be made in line with the cited literature review to form a basis for argument while relating to the findings;
Minimise speculation in the discussions.

5.1.5b) Limitations:

Refers to the constraints or weaknesses in a study that may affect the validity, reliability or generalizability of the findings.

5.1.5c) Conclusions:

These should be summarised in paragraphs, consistent with study objectives, and cover half a page;

5.1.5d) Recommendations:

Refer to the conclusions and clearly state which authority or individual should take which action. Present not more than 4 key recommendations;

5.1.5e) Implications to Nursing Practice:

Highlight the impact and relevancy of the findings to the Nursing practice or how the findings will be important in improving Nursing practice.

7.0 APPENDICES FOR FINAL RESEARCH REPORT

Appendix I: Consent form
Appendix II: Data collection tool(s) or instrument(s)
Appendix III: Copy of Introduction letter
Appendix IV: Letter of authorisation by authorities of study area
Appendix V: A Copy of a letter from IRC
Appendix VI: Maps showing location of study area
Appendix VII: Similarity Index Report processed by “Turnitin” a plagiarism checking open-source software

Key Differences Between a Research Proposal and a Research Report

Feature	Research Proposal	Research Report
Title Pages	One title page.	Two title pages.
Tense	Written in the future tense (e.g., "This study will investigate...").	Written in the past tense (e.g., "This study investigated...").
Abstract	Not included/applicable.	Summarizes the completed research, including objectives, methods, actual results, and conclusions derived.
Declaration	Focuses on the originality and ethical conduct planned for the research.	Declares the originality of the completed work and confirms adherence to ethical standards during the research.
Approval	Typically an approval from the supervisor or research committee for the proposed study.	Contains approvals for the completed research from relevant authorities or committees, confirming the final submission.
Copyright	Not applicable as the work is yet to be completed.	Reflects the copyright status of the completed work, protecting the intellectual property of the final report.
Authorization Page	Not applicable (authorizations are for the execution of the study).	Contains authorizations and approvals granted for the conduct of the study and the submission of the completed work.
Dedication	Not applicable.	Can include a dedication to individuals, groups, or entities who provided support or inspiration during the research process.
Acknowledgement	Not applicable.	Acknowledges actual support received (financial, technical, intellectual, personal) during the research execution.
List of Tables & Figures	Not applicable (tables/figures are generally expected but not yet finalized).	Lists actual tables and figures used in the completed report, along with their page numbers.
Main Body (Chapters)	Chapters 1-3: Chapter 1 (Introduction): Sets the stage for the proposed research. Chapter 2 (Literature Review): Summarizes existing research relevant to the proposed study to justify it. Chapter 3 (Research Methodology): Details the planned research approach, design, and procedures.	Chapters 1-5: Chapter 1 (Introduction): Provides context, objectives, and significance of the conducted study. Chapter 2 (Literature Review): Comprehensive review of existing literature, often updated to reflect the current understanding relevant to the findings. Chapter 3 (Research Methodology): Details the methodology actually implemented, including any deviations or refinements. Chapter 4 (Results): Presentation of the research findings (data, statistics, qualitative themes). Chapter 5 (Discussion, Limitations, Conclusion, Recommendations, Nursing Implications): Interpretation and analysis of findings, discussion of study constraints, overall conclusions, actionable recommendations, and practical implications.
Appendices	May include proposed research tools (e.g., draft questionnaire), projected budget, and planned workplan.	Omits budget and workplan (as they are part of the planning/execution phase), includes actual final research tools used, consent forms, authorization letters, and a plagiarism report.
Additional Pages	N/A.	May include an introductory letter accompanying the final report to provide context for the completed work.

Dissemination of Research Findings

Beyond the completion of a research report, it is crucial to disseminate the findings. Dissemination refers to the strategies employed by the researcher to ensure that individuals concerned with or interested in the research findings become aware of the study and its outcomes.

Strategies for Dissemination of Research Findings

These strategies include:

Oral presentations through Continuous Medical Education (CMEs)
Poster presentations
Seminars
Publications in academic journals
Conferences
Magazines
Newspapers etc.

Chapter Four: Findings of the Study

This is the results section of your research report. It primarily involves the presentation of data, often in statistical forms.

Statistical data refers to all numerical descriptions of events, things, or objects. They take the form of counting or measurements, e.g., sex and age distribution of children with diarrheal diseases, clinically diagnosed cases of malaria.

Note that results are presented according to the objectives of the study.

Statistical Methods

These are the different means of organizing, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data for a better understanding of a phenomenon, allowing for sound decisions/conclusions.

Statistical methods can be broadly categorized as:

Descriptive Statistics
Analytical Statistics

Descriptive and Analytical Statistics:

Descriptive statistics involves the organization, presentation, and summarization of data.
Analytical statistics involves the organization, presentation, summarization, and finding an association between variables.

Statistical Variable

A statistical variable refers to any measurable characteristic that assumes a different value among individuals or subjects, e.g., temperature, blood pressure, age, weight, etc.

Statistical variables can be:

Quantitative variables: These can be measured in the form of numbers, as opposed to names or descriptions of events.
Qualitative variables: These cannot be measured in the form of numbers but rather names, e.g., degree of pain (like moderate, severe pain); tribe (like Ganda, Nyankole), etc.

Presentation of Data

Data presentation is important in any research study. It helps to summarize all the raw data into information that can be easily read and appreciated by other readers of your work. Data can be presented in the form of tables, figures (i.e., graphs, pie charts, line graphs, histograms, etc.). These form visual aids that help the reader to quickly understand the information.

Tables:

Tables help to summarize and give a picture of the size, shape, and distribution of the study findings.
These can be presented as:
- Frequency distribution tables
- Grouped Frequency distribution tables
For a table to be clearly understood, it must be properly constructed.

How to Construct a Table:

Ensure the table has an appropriate title.
The title should be above the table.
Every table must be numbered to facilitate easy referencing.
Should fit on one page.
Column and row headings should be brief and clear.
Units of headings should be clearly indicated.

Figures (Graphs, Charts):

Figures help to give a valuable supplement to the statistical analysis.
They help to show the trends of distribution.
When constructing a figure, follow the same guidelines as for a table, but the heading of a figure is usually placed below the figure.

Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations

This section of the research report deals with discussions of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the study findings. In the recommending sections, you also highlight the nursing implications of the study findings.

Note that discussions are done according to your study objectives.

Key Points in Discussion of Results:

Discussion must be based on the major findings of your study.
Findings of your study must be related to findings of other previously done studies, i.e., relate your findings to your literature review. Discuss whether the findings are in agreement or disagreement.
If your crucial findings do not relate to any literature reviewed, also acknowledge it.

Report Writing Read More »

APPENDICES

Appendices refer to the different supporting documents that contain any additional information needed to enable professionals to follow your research procedures and data analysis.

An appendix is a page that contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper.

Appendices appear just after the reference list

In a proposal book, reference list appears immediately after chapter three
(methodology) and in the report reference list appears after chapter five.

Each appendix must be referred to by name e.g (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, etc.) in the text of the paper

To refer to the Appendix within your text, write, (see Appendix A) at the end of the sentence in parentheses. Example:

In addition to the limitations of email, Dansons et al. (2012) reviewed studies that focused on international bank employees and college students (see Appendix B for demographic information).

Examples of information that can be presented in appendices

Consent form
Questionnaires or checklists used for data collection.
Tables referred to in the text but not included in order to keep the report short; e.g Morgan’s table for sample size determination
Lists of hospitals, districts, villages etc. that participated in the study
Maps of study area
Research budget
Work schedule or time table that you followed during the research process
Letters of authorization (must be signed and stamped by an authorized official).

These appendices should be labeled; e.g

3.4.4 APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Work plan
Appendix 2: Budget
Appendix 3: Consent form .
Appendix 4: Data collection tools or instruments
Appendix 5: Maps showing location of the study area

CONSENT FORM

Consent form is the document that shows that the informed consent process has taken place.

Informed consent is the permission granted in the knowledge of the possible consequences, given by the respondent to the researcher for participating in the study (with full knowledge of possible risks and benefits).

In research autonomy is protected by ensuring that the patient consents

Any consent to participate in the study must be informed.
Constitutionally, any person 18 years and above is legible to formal consent.
For persons below 18 (principally below 15yrs), they will ascent to agree to participate and the next of kin or institutional authority will consent as key witness.
This involves explaining clearly to the prospective participant about your study to ensure the participant understands what your research is all about.
The participant will then be allowed to make a free choice whether or not to participate in your study.
There must be no coercion of any sort.

Key features of a consent form

Statement of introduction. Here you introduce yourself to the participant; your names, address and profession.
Purpose of the study– state your topic and justify why you are studying that topic.
Benefits or risks of participating (if any- be honest)
Statement assuring participant about ethical considerations(confidentiality of information, freedom to withdraw from the study at any time, etc).
Statement of consent. Here the participant acknowledges having been explained to and having understood clearly thus accepts to participate in the study. This participant then signs this document(does not put his name).

Others,

🌐 Purpose of the Research: Clear, concise explanation of the research purpose, including the study name.
🎯📋 Purpose of the Study: A concise statement outlining the study’s objectives.
⚠️ Benefits: Description of procedure risks, side effects, or discomfort, along with potential benefits.
😓❌ Potential Risks: Identification and explanation of any potential risks involved.
☑️ Voluntary Participation: Statement that participation is voluntary, with the freedom to withdraw without penalty.
❓ Participant Questions: Statement allowing participants to ask questions about the study.
🤐 Confidentiality Protection: Description of measures to protect participant confidentiality.
📂🔒 Confidentiality Assurance: Reassurance regarding the confidentiality of participant information.
📜 Consent Form Copy: Assurance that the participant will receive a copy of the signed and dated consent form.
🕵️ Researchers Information: Inclusion of investigator(s) names and contact details.
🖋️ Consent Statement: Inclusion of a “statement of consent” with participant name and signature.
📚🔍 Study Title: The official title of the research study.
🧪🔍 Research Procedures: Overview of the specific procedures involved in the research.
📃✍ Informed Consent Statement: A statement emphasizing the importance of informed consent.
📞📧 Contact Information: Information on how participants can contact the researchers.
📜👤 Participant Rights: Explanation of the rights participants have during and after the study.
✍📃 Signature Lines: Designated spaces for participant and researcher signatures.
🗓📆 Date: Space for indicating the date when the consent form is signed.

RESEARCH BUDGET

A research budget is a line item (tabular) representation of the expenses associated with the proposal project. The Budget Justification contains more in-depth detail of the costs behind the line items, and sometimes explains the use of the funds where not evident. Also called explanatory notes. Cost estimates need to be as accurate as possible to cover the expenses proposed in the project. Reviewers will note both over- and under-estimations. The budget should be developed with your departmental research administrator, in consultation with the appropriate project representative as needed. Sponsors customarily specify how budgets should be presented and what costs are allowable. The overview given here is for preliminary guidance only.

ITEM	QUANTITY	UNIT COST	AMOUNT
PROPOSAL
Ruled papers	1 ream	17,000/=	17,000/=
Pens	10	500/=	5,000/=
Duplicating paper	2 reams	15,000/=	30,000/=
Notebooks	2	1,500/=	3,000/=
File folders	4	1,000/=	4,000/=
Photocopying	52 pages	100/=	5,200/=
Typing and printing	52 pages	1,000/=	52,000/=
Binding	5 copies	5,000/=	25,000/=
FINAL REPORT
Typing and printing	52 pages	1,000/=	52,000/=
Photocopying	52 pages	100/=	5,200/=
Binding	5 copies	5,000/=	25,000/=

RESEARCH TIME TABLE/WORKPLAN

A study timetable is an easy, inexpensive tool that can help you get control over your study time.

It will give you perspective on what you need to accomplish and the time you have to do it in.

If you want to get organized and feel motivated to get your work done to the best of your potential, try putting together a personalized study timetable.

In research, it is referred to as a work plan

The Gantt Chart

What is a Gantt Chart?

The Gantt Chart is a planning tool that shows graphically the order in which various tasks must be implemented (done) and the duration of each activity.

APPENDICES Read More »

References and Appendices

References refers to a list of all intext cited works.

The researcher is supposed to develop a reference list at the end of your proposal. This list enables the reader or user of this proposal to conveniently retrieve each of the sources of information that the researcher reviewed.

Whenever you use someone else’s words or ideas in your research paper, you must indicate that this information is borrowed by quoting the source of information in the paper itself (in text referencing), and at the end of the paper (reference list). This applies to written sources you have used such as books, articles web pages, e.t.c

Reference is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in the research paper.

Referencing is a crucial part of successful academic writing, avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity in your assignments and research.

Purpose/Importance of Referencing: WHY DO WE REFERENCE?

Giving Credit to Others: Referencing is a way of acknowledging and giving credit to the original authors or creators of ideas, theories, and works that you incorporate into your own writing. Example: If you use a quote from a book in your research, proper referencing indicates who wrote that quote originally.
Enhancing Credibility and Authority: By citing reputable sources, referencing lends credibility and authority to your arguments. It shows that your ideas are supported by established knowledge and research. Referencing gives your argument evidence, credibility and authority. Example: Referring to well-known studies or academic papers in your field strengthens the reliability of your statements.
Providing a Trail to the Original Source: References act as signposts, guiding readers to the original works. This allows interested readers to move deeper into the topic by exploring the sources you used. Example: A reader who gets interested in your work can trace it back to the specific research study through your references.
Avoiding Plagiarism: Failure to acknowledge the work of others may lead to plagiarism. Proper referencing is essential to avoid unintentional or intentional plagiarism, demonstrating academic integrity. Example: Copying and pasting a paragraph from a source without proper citation is considered plagiarism.
Distinguishing Your Ideas: Referencing allows you to differentiate your original thoughts from those borrowed from external sources. It is a way of distinguishing your ideas from those of other sources.
Facilitating Fact-Checking: Proper referencing enables others to fact-check your work. Interested readers or researchers can verify the accuracy of your statements by consulting the original sources. Example: Including page numbers in your citations allows readers to locate specific information in the referenced source.

Referencing styles

A referencing style is a set of rules on how to acknowledge the thoughts, ideas and works of others in a particular way.

In your document, referencing is done at two levels; first you need to give a brief reference in the body of text called “in-text citation”, and secondly a detailed reference is provided at the end of the document in the form of a list.

Types of referencing styles

The two commonest styles used are;

APA (American psychological Association) style.
MLA (Modern Language Association) style.

Other styles are;

Vancouver style / author-number system)
Chicago style
Turabian style

APA STYLE OF REFERENCING

APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author’s last name and the year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style recommended by the American Psychological Association and used in many of the social sciences

It is the Author Prominent Style of Referencing

General Rules for In-text Citation:

In-text citation utilizes the last name (surname) of the author, followed by a comma and the year of publication. Example:

(Ghaznavi, 2003).

2. If a page number follows the publication year, a comma is added. Example:

(Ghaznavi, 2003, p. 40).

3. Alternatively, the author’s name can be written outside the bracket. Example:

Ghaznavi (2003, p. 40) observes…

4. Punctuation marks come after the citation, not before.

When you provide an in-text citation in the body of your writing, any punctuation marks, such as commas or periods, should come after the citation.

For example:

Correct: “This is an important point (Smith, 2021).”
Incorrect: “This is an important point, (Smith, 2021).”

In the correct example, the period is placed after the citation within the parentheses/brackets. This is to ensure that the citation is clearly associated with the information it is referencing, and punctuation does not interfere with the citation’s structure.

General Rules for APA Reference List

Detailed references are listed on a separate page titled ‘References,’ centered and in bold.

2. Only sources cited in the work are listed.

3. Double line spacing is used between each entry.

4. Each reference has a hanging indent, where the first line is flushed to the left margin, and remaining lines are indented.

Additional Referencing Rules:

The list is alphabetically arranged based on the first author’s surname or the first significant word of the title.
If sources from the same author have different publication years, references are listed alphabetically by the first author’s name and then chronologically.
Titles of larger sources (books, journals) are italicized, while titles of parts within a larger work are enclosed in double quotation marks without italics.
Unused but consulted sources can be mentioned under “Bibliography” on a separate page.

In-text Citation and Reference List Entry for Two Authors:

In the in-text citation, only the surnames of the two authors are used, separated by ‘&’. Example:

(Alvi & Zaidi, 2009).

In the reference list, both the surname and initials of the two authors are used, separated by ‘&’. Example:

Alvi, M. H. & Zaidi, R. (2009).

In-text Citation and Reference List Entry for Three to Five Authors:

In the in-text citation, only the surnames of the three authors are used, first two separated by a comma (,) and the last two by ‘&’. Example:

(Alvi, Ghaznavi, Hashmi, Siddiqui & Zaidi, 2009).

If the same source is cited again in the text, it will appear like this: Example:

(Alvi et al., 2009).

In the reference list, both the surname and initials of all the authors are used, the last two separated by ‘&’, and the remaining by commas. Example:

Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Hashmi, M., Siddiqui, D. & Zaidi, R. (2009). <title>.

In-text Citation and Reference List Entry for 6 to 7 Authors:

In the in-text citation, only the surname of the first author is written, followed by ‘et al.’ Example:

(Alvi et al., 2009).

In the reference list, both the surname and initials of all the authors are used, the last two separated by ‘&’, and the remaining by commas. Example:

Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Afridi, S., Zaidi, R., Hashmi, M. & Siddiqui, D. (2009).

In-text Citation and Reference List Entry for 8 or More Authors:

In the in-text citation, only the surname of the first author is written, followed by ‘et al.’ Example:

(Alvi et al., 2009).

In the reference list, write the names of the first six and the last author. The last two names are separated by “……..,” and the remaining by commas. Example:

Alvi, M. H., Ghaznavi, K., Afridi, S., Zaidi, R., Hashmi, M. & Siddiqui, D.,…., Qureshi, T.R. (2009).

Harvard Style of referencing

Harvard is actually a generic term refers to all the referencing styles that are “author date” based style
This style is most commonly used in U.K and Australia
Developed by Harvard University in the UK and published by the Harvard Law Review Association.
The Harvard style and its many variations are used in law, natural sciences, social and behavioural sciences, and medicine.

Harvard Style of referencing-General Rules, citation

In in-text citation only the last name (surname) of the author is used, author’s name and year of publication are not separated by a comma (,). For example: (Ghaznavi 2003)
A comma (,) is put after the publication year if a page number is mentioned after it. (Ghaznavi 2003, p 40)
It is also allowed to write the author’s name out of the bracket. For example: Ghaznavi (2003, p 40) observes ………..
Punctuation marks such as comma or full stop are used after the citation and not before them.

General Rules- Harvard Style referencing

Detailed references are listed on a separate page at the end of the document.
The title ‘References’ is given to the list, placed in center and in bold font.
Only those sources are to be listed that has been cited in your work.
No reference carries hanging indent.
Author’s name and the year are not separated by a comma or a full-stop.
Each reference ends up with a full stop (.).
If you have used the sources of the same author/s with different years of publication, the references are alphabetically listed first by the first author’s name then chronologically by publication year.
In the reference list, the name of an author is written in a way: last name is written first and afterwards initials of the first name/s are written; no full stop is put after the initials.
For Example:

Khalid Ghaznavi is written as Ghaznavi K

Mohsin Hasan Alvi is written as Alvi MH

The names of the authors are usual presented in capital letters

Revision Questions

1. What are the similarities between APA an Harvard styles of referencing?
2. What are the major differences?
3. Examine the differences between list of references and bibliography?

Similarities between APA and Harvard styles of referencing:

Purpose: Both APA and Harvard styles aim to provide clear and consistent guidelines for citing sources in academic writing. They help to ensure that readers can easily identify and locate the sources used in a research paper or other academic work.
Author-date system: Both APA and Harvard styles utilize the author-date system for in-text citations. This means that the author’s last name and the year of publication are included in parentheses within the text to indicate the source of the information.
Alphabetical arrangement: Both APA and Harvard styles require that the reference list or bibliography be arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name. This makes it easy for readers to find the full bibliographic information for each source.

Major differences between APA and Harvard styles:

In-text citations: APA and Harvard styles differ in the specific format for in-text citations. APA uses the author-date system with parentheses around the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number (if applicable). Harvard style omits the parentheses and uses a comma after the author’s last name, followed by a period, the year of publication, and a colon before the page number (if applicable).
Reference list vs. bibliography: APA uses a reference list, which includes all sources cited in the paper, whether they are books, articles, websites, or other formats. Harvard uses a bibliography, which includes only sources that are referred to or mentioned in the paper.
Formatting: APA and Harvard styles have different formatting requirements for the reference list or bibliography. APA uses specific indentation rules, double spacing, and a hanging indent for each entry. Harvard uses a consistent indentation for all entries, single spacing, and no hanging indent.

5 differences between list of references and bibliography:

Scope: A list of references includes all sources that are cited in the paper, while a bibliography includes only sources that are referred to or mentioned in the paper.
Completeness: A list of references should include complete bibliographic information for each source, while a bibliography may include abbreviated or incomplete information, depending on the style guide.
Purpose: A list of references is primarily used to provide a record of the sources used in the paper, while a bibliography may also serve as a guide for further reading or research.
Ordering: A list of references is normally ordered alphabetically by author’s last name, while a bibliography may be organized differently, such as by topic or chronology.
Labeling: A list of references is labeled as “References,” while a bibliography may be labeled as “Works Cited,” “Bibliography,” or “Literature Cited.”

Appendices

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References and Appendices Read More »

Research Methods and Instruments For Data Collection

Data Collection Methods and Instruments

Research instruments refers to the tools you are going to use to answer your objectives.

The researcher is supposed to explain the different methods that he/she intends to use during data collection. However, the research must put into consideration the research approach adopted (Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed Methods), this will help the researcher in choosing the most appropriate research method to adopt.

Furthermore the researcher should as well put into consideration the type of data to be collected whether its primary data, Secondary data or a combination of both primary and secondary data. This will equally guide during the process of selecting the most appropriate data collection methods.

Note that:
The choice of data collection method (s) to be adopted by the researcher depends of the research approach used and the more the data collection methods adopted the more hectic the research but the better the findings.

Some of the data collection methods include; Questionnaire Survey, Interviews, Documentary Review, Focus Group Discussions, Observations and Experiments among others.

Data collection instruments

The primary methods employed for data collection consist of:

Data collection instruments refer to the tools that the researcher will use for collecting the relevant data related to the study objectives.

The researcher is therefore supposed to use this section to discuss the different data collection instruments s/he will adopt during the research, to state the data collection instrument, then briefly explain how it will be structured and the types of questions you expect to ask using the instrument.

For the case of questionnaires and interviews, the researcher must clearly state whether they will be structured or not & whether they will be self-administered or not. Therefore, the researcher is supposed to provide the basic information about the data collection instrument that will be adopted.

Questionnaire or Questionnaire Guide

While as the data collection method was a questionnaire survey, its corresponding data collection instrument is the questionnaire or a questionnaire guide.

The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what a questionnaire is, explain how the questionnaire will be structured, explain the types of questions that you have in the instrument (whether open-ended, closed ended or both), explain whether you will use a Likert scale questionnaire or instrument, explain whether the questionnaire will be mailed, self-administered or web-based and as well explain whether it will be a structured, semi-structured or unstructured instrument.

This section is supposed to enable the reader understand how your questionnaire will be composed.

Interview Guide

In the case that the researcher adopted interviews or interviewing as the data collection method, then the data collection instrument would be the interview guide.

An interview guide is therefore a data collection instrument that supports the researcher through directing an interview process towards the objectives and issues regarding the study.

The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what an interview guide is, explain how the interview guide will be structured, explain the types of questions that will be asked (whether open-ended, closed-ended or mixed), explain whether it will be a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview, The researcher is also supposed to explain whether it will be a Directly personal interview, Telephone interview, Panel interview, Group interview or a Video conferencing interview.

This section is supposed to enable the reader to understand all the questions of; Who, Why, When, How and Where about your interview guide.

Observation Checklist

While as the data collection method was observation, its corresponding data collection instrument is the observation checklist.

An observation checklist is therefore a list of items that a researcher/ observer intends to observe (look at, hear, taste, smell or touch) during the data collection process.

The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what an observation checklist is, how an observation checklist will be structured, explain the items in the observation checklist and further explain for how long he/she intends to observe. Say everything about your observation checklist.

This section is supposed to explain whether the observation will be; Participatory, Non-participatory or Covert-observation and how it will be executed.

Therefore, this section is supposed to enable the reader understand how your observation checklist will be composed.

Focus Group Discussion Guide

Researchers must note that if the data collection method was Focus Group Discussion, then the data collection instrument is a Focus Group Discussion Guide.

A Focus Group Discussion Guide is a data collection instrument that supports the researcher through streamlining particular processes or advising on how the Focus Group Discussion will be conducted in order to achieve its predetermined objectives.

The researcher is therefore supposed to briefly explain what a Focus Group Discussion Guide is, how the FGDG will be structured, explain the types of questions that will be asked (they are usually open-ended questions), explain the number of members that each FGD will have, explain how long each FGD will last, explain the composition of each FGD, whether the moderator will be the researcher or an appointed research assistant and how many FGDs will be conducted.

Note that;
This section is therefore supposed to enable the reader to understand all the questions of; Who, Why, When, How and Where about your Focus group Discussion Guide.

Experimental Checklist

In case the researcher chose experiment as the data collection method, then the data collection instrument will be the experimental checklist.

An experimental checklist therefore refers to a list of all the relevant scientific procedures that the researcher has to undertake while collecting data about the dependent and independent variables during an experiment.

Quality control methods/ pre-testing

This section can as well be referred to as validity and reliability. It's usually subdivided into two subsection validity and Reliability. The researcher is supposed to use this section to briefly but clearly explain how s/he will test for the validity and reliability of the research instruments.

Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which research instrument correctly measures what the researcher wants to measure. Therefore validity is about credibility or trustworthiness or accuracy or correctness of the research instrument.

The researcher is therefore supposed to provide a brief meaning of validity. Explain how s/he will ensure validity of the instruments. If you are to pre-test ensure that you explain the category of respondents that you will consider for the pilot study and how you will select them. Explain how you will carry-out the pilot study, Explain how you will go about managing the findings of the pre-test, the lessons learnt out of the pre-test and how you will go about redesigning the data collection instrument (s) (just in case the pre-test results deem it necessary).

Reliability

Reliability basically refers to consistency of a research instrument. Therefore reliability of a research instrument can easily be defined as the ability of a research instrument to yield the same results once used repeatedly over a given period of time while measuring the same variable(s).

The researcher is therefore supposed to provide a brief description of reliability. Explain how s/he will ensure reliability of the instrument(s). If you are to pilot test ensure that you explain the category of respondents that you will consider for the pilot study and how you will select them.

Explain how you will carry-out the pilot study, Explain how you will go about managing the findings of the pilot study, the lessons learnt out of the pilot and how you will go about redesigning the data collection instrument (s) (just in case the pilot results deem it necessary).

Note that:
An instrument can easily be reliable without being valid hence the need for testing for both validity and reliability.

A simple example of a reliable but invalid instrument would be offering a test to students and they averagely score 40% in the first sitting, they again score averagely 40% in the 2nd and 3rd sittings but yet the 40% is due to some wrongly set questions, which do note enable these students to excel and score 90's. In this case the instrument is reliable because it consistently provides the same results but invalid because it's not actually measuring what the researcher intended to measure (It's not correct).

Therefore researchers must always pre-test for both validity (correctness) and Reliability (consistency).

Research (Data Collection) Instruments/Tools

The key tools utilized for data collection include:

Interview Guides: Structured sets of questions or topics designed to guide an interviewer during face-to-face or key informant interviews.
Self-administered Questionnaires: Questionnaires designed for respondents to complete independently, without direct interaction with an interviewer.
Key Informant Guides: Structured outlines or questions used when interviewing key informants, individuals with specialized knowledge or experience relevant to the research.
Group Discussion Topics: Specific subjects or issues designated for exploration during a focus group discussion to stimulate conversation and elicit diverse perspectives.
Observation Checklist/Schedule: A systematic list or plan used by researchers to observe and record specific behaviors, events, or characteristics during the observation method.
Library Search: A systematic exploration of existing literature and information sources within a library to gather relevant data for research.
Tests: Structured assessments or examinations conducted to measure specific abilities, knowledge, or characteristics of individuals.
Use of Diary: The recording of regular, chronological entries detailing events, behaviors, or experiences over time, serving as a method of data collection in research.

The selection of the data collection method is guided by:

Accuracy of Information: The degree to which the chosen data collection method ensures precise, reliable, and truthful information from the participants, influencing the method’s appropriateness for the research.
Practical Considerations: Factors such as time, available resources, equipment, and personnel, which impact the feasibility and suitability of a particular data collection method for the research.
Response Rate of Respondents: The anticipated level of participation and willingness of the target respondents to engage with the chosen data collection method, affecting the method’s effectiveness in gathering sufficient and representative data.
Geographical Area Coverage: The extent to which the selected data collection method can efficiently collect information across the intended geographical area, considering the distribution and accessibility of the target population.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

The Instrument must be valid and reliable
It must be based upon the Conceptual framework.
It must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic.
It must gather data would test the hypotheses or answer the questions under investigation
It should be free from all kinds of bias.
It must contain clear and definite directions to accomplish it.
It must be accompanied by a good cover letter.
It must be accompanied, if possible, by a letter of recommendation from a sponsor/school.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Common Research Instruments/Tools

1. Questionnaire/Questionnaire survey

The researcher is supposed to briefly describe this method of data collection, provide a justification for choosing this method of data collection, explain the type of data he/she expects to collect while using this method, the type of instrument that will support this data collection method and as well which category of the population will be subject to this data collection method.

A questionnaire survey is a data collection method mainly aimed towards collecting quantitative data where the researcher designs a set of questions related to the study objectives for purpose of collecting the required data.

Main types of questionnaires include:

Mail questionnaires: This is a form of questionnaire that is prepared and mailed out to the respondent who must be part of the selected sample from a given study population. The main purpose of using a mailed questionnaire is to ensure that the researcher connects with a wider range of respondents. Basic forms of mails include; The E-mail, postal mails and Drop box survey mails among others.
Self-administered questionnaire: This is a form of questionnaire where the respondent is left to read the questions, then fills in the answers by him/herself. This questionnaire is however sometimes filled in the presence of the interviewer(s) who usually stand-by to provide any form of support in case the respondent deems it necessary.
Directly administered questionnaires: This is a form of questionnaire where the interviewer him/herself supports the respondent to fill the questionnaire. In this case the interviewer may keep reading questions for the respondent to answer. The interviewer can therefore support the respondent by rephrasing questions for a better understanding but without compromising the quality of the question. The main disadvantage of such a method is that it can easily lead to interviewer bias.
Web-based questionnaires: This method is sometimes confused with mail questionnaires, however there is a difference between the two as this method is purely through use of web-site links while as mail questionnaire may be postal or email or even hand delivered mails by an agent of the researcher. Web-based questionnaire is becoming so inevitably growing where organizations (Private and Public), Groups and individuals, use internet based questionnaire surveys. This method is so cost effective and quicker but as well less detailed as compared to the other methods. Though its biggest challenge is the fact that it requires the use of internet and computer or high level technology which some potential respondents may not readily have access to, hence a strong limitation.

Types of questions asked include:

Open-ended questions: This refers to a questionnaire which has questions that provide the respondent an opportunity to freely say whatever they deem necessary about the researcher's study or research question. Open-ended questions encourage full and meaningful participation of the respondent through motivating the interviewee to use his/her own knowledge about the subject. Open-ended questions usually help in the collection of qualitative data.
Closed-ended questions: This refers to a questionnaire in which the questions asked have fixed responses that are provided for the respondent to choose from. These questions can be answered by simply ticking Yes or No (Boolean response). They can be answered through use of a Likert scale for example by selecting 5= Strongly Agree, 4 = Agree, 3 = Not Sure, 2 = Disagree and 1 = Strongly Disagree. The respondent is restricted and does not have the ability to exploit his knowledge to the fullest. Closed-ended questions usually help in the collection of quantitative data.
Mixed questions: This is a triangulation of both Closed-ended and Open-ended questions in the same questionnaire. This is the most commonly used type of questionnaire and it helps in the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. This method is mainly used in social research.
Pictorial questions: This refers to a questionnaire where the researcher decides to use pictures to promote the interest in answering questions. In this case respondents will select their pictures of preference. This method is rarely used but it as well helps in collecting data just like the previous methods. This method is usually used in studies related to the prejudices in children and as well as in other form of social attitudes.

Forms of questionnaire structuring

Structured Questionnaire: This is a form of questionnaire in which a specific set of predetermined questions were prepared by the interviewer in advance. This is the commonly used method by academic researchers.
Unstructured Questionnaire: This is a form of questionnaire in which the survey questions to be asked the respondents are usually not set in advance.

Advantages:

Easy administration to respondents across large areas.
Respondents can answer at their own convenience.
Quick data collection, saving time.
Enhances anonymity, allowing respondents to freely address sensitive questions.
Eliminates interview bias.
Hard to design but easy to use.

Disadvantages:

Unsuitable for illiterate respondents.
Risk of misinterpretation of questions.
Lack of opportunity for researcher probing.
Low response rates.
No observation of facial expressions.
Inflexible tool in terms of respondent approach.

How to Construct a Questionnaire:

Keep it brief and attractive.
Begin with simple questions, ensuring logical sequencing.
Include researcher’s address and a clear title.
Provide an introduction, emphasizing the study’s significance, confidentiality, and instructions.
Use simple language, avoiding technical terms.
Ask specific questions related to research objectives.
Avoid leading and double questions.
Place sensitive questions at the end.
Include a variety of question types.

2. Interview Instrument (Interview Guide/Schedule)

The researcher is supposed to briefly describe this method of data collection, provide a brief justification for choosing this method of data collection, describe which type of data is expected to be collected using this method, which instrument will support this data collection method and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.

Interviewing is a method of data collection that involves verbal or non-verbal exchanges between an interviewer(s) and an interviewee(s) where the interviewer asks questions related to the study objective(s) and the interviewee provides suitable responses based on his knowledge and experience.

Interviewing is the most commonly used method of data collection in social sciences, it's therefore close to impossible to conduct a social science research without using interviews as a method of data collection. Interviews are usually used by researchers to find out the attitudes and perceptions of the informants about certain study variables.

Types of interviews

While planning to collect data, a researcher who has chosen to use interviewing as one of the data collection methods should as well plan for the specific type of interview he/ she will adopt.

There are 3 basic forms of interviews, these include;

Structured interviews: This is a form of interview where the researcher sets the interview questions in advance, ensures that they are precise and quantified answers/responses are needed. In this form of interview, questions must be asked in a standard way and the researcher ensures that most or all questions are asked. Usually the researcher sets possible answers for the interview, most questions have pre-set responses to be chosen from.
Unstructured / In-depth Interviews: This is a form of interview where the researcher does not set any standard questions for the interview but rather starts up a conversation with an informant on a given topic and then follows the informant to ensure that he/she establishes what is important to discuss or not. In most cases the researcher may start-up the interview with a few open-ended questions but most of the questions asked during the interview will be emerging issues as a result of the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. During this kind of interview, as an interviewer; always ensure that you speak minimally and give room to the interviewee to do most of the talking. This interview will help you as a researcher to do in-depth interviewing and subsequently generate sensitive information.
Semi-structural interviews: This is a form of interviewing usually used where the researcher is interested in collecting both qualitative and quantitative data. Therefore the researcher will have both standard questions (where the researcher expects predetermined responses) and open-ended questions (where the respondent is free to say whatever they have to say about a given topic). Therefore semi-structured interviews are simply a triangulation of structured and unstructured interviews.

Administering of interviews

This refers to how the researcher executes the interview. In most cases researchers may use; Telephone interviewing, Face-to-Face interviewing or group interviewing among others. This choice greatly depends on the researchers interests.

Forms of Interview Administration

Directly personal interviews: This is sometimes referred to as face-to-face interviews or one-on-one interviews. This is where the interviewer chooses to personally interact with one informant (interviewee) at ago.
Telephone interview: This is an indirect form of personal interview where the researcher (interviewer) interacts with the interviewee through a telephone conversation. The interviewer will not have the capacity to read the body language of the interviewee. This method can also take the trend of a single interviewer against multiple interviewees, commonly done through conferencing.
Note that:
- Telephone interviewing can easily be interrupted by technological breakdown.
- If well managed this method can support the researcher to collect information in the shortest time possible.
Panel interview: This is a form of interview where a group of interviewers normally ask one interviewee (informant) a set of questions. This form of interview is usually a face -to - face or using modern conferencing technology. A Common example is a job interview where one respondent (interviewee) faces a panel of interviewers.
Group interview: This is a form of interviewing where more than one interviewer interacts with more than one interviewee and all interviewers expect responses from the interviewees.
Video conferencing interviews / internet interviews: This form of interviewing involves the interviewer (researcher) adopting modern technology supported with the use of internet to ensure that he/she directly contacts with his or her respondent (interviewees).
Note that; This is mainly through; Chart rooms and Video conferencing. It can be a one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one or many-to-many (interviewers) to-many (interviewees).

Considerations before an interview

These are issues that a researcher must reflect on before taking any form of interview; they include;

Ensure that you are dressed neutrally (To guard against bias).
Prepare to be friendly to the interviewee(s) but remain professional.
Prepare not to talk academically (Avoid all technical jargons)
Plan well and ensure that you are ready to ask more non-directional questions (non-leading questions or neutral questions).
Prepare to avoid biased language
Prepare probe questions. These will help you to conduct more in-depth interviews.
Prepare a tape recorder (To capture the audio responses or recoding the informants responses).
Prepare a note book.
Prepare pen
Prepare to take notes
Prepare to be a moderate of the session by speaking less and let your interviewee speak more.
Prepare to monitor the interview session i.e., so that it remains a relevant conversation about the study area, within a required time frame and with important issues being raised.
Do a general preparation for the interview such as visiting the washroom before the process.
Prepare the interviewee for the interview by greeting the interviewee, introducing yourself and making a brief suitable talk about the study while assuring the interviewee about confidentiality and motive of the study.
Plan and prepare how you intend to close the interview. Don't forget to thank the informant for the time and resourceful information provided.

Advantages:

Higher response rate.
Suitable for non-literate respondents.
Allows probing.
Enables observation of respondent’s non-verbal cues.
More control over data collection pace.
Identity of respondent is known.
Provides an opportunity for follow-up.

Disadvantages:

Expensive and time-consuming, especially with a scattered population.
Respondents may lack time for interviews.
Prone to biases.
Limited anonymity.
Respondents may give pleasing answers.
Embarrassing questions may hinder open responses.
Difficulty in tracing respondents.

3. Observation Schedule/Checklist

The researcher is supposed to briefly describe this data collection method, provide a brief justification for choosing this method, describe the type of data he/she expects to collect using this method, the instrument that will support this method of data collection and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.

Observation as a data collection method therefore refers to the process of the researcher regarding attentively or watching the actions, behaviors and code of conduct for a given population for purposes of making inferences.

The researcher may observe through;

Tasting,
Touching,
Seeing or using his or her senses of sight,
Smelling and as well as
Hearing.

Forms of observation

There are three types of observation from which researchers may choose the most appropriate method for their study. These include;

Non-participant observation: This is basically a form of observation techniques where the researcher keenly watches the subjects (elements) of the study population with their knowledge and consent but without being part of the situation being observed. Therefore, in this form of observation, the researcher will only concentrate on observing but not a participant. This method allows the researcher to focus fully on players and have little distraction since he/she is not an active participant hence complete and timely data collection. However, the main disadvantage of such a method is that subjects /elements being aware that they are being observed prompts them to behave differently.
Participant observation: This is a form of observation where the researcher gets intensively involved with the study population in their natural environment but with a purpose of collecting data about the behaviors, attitudes and ways of living of a given cohort say religious or occupational groups. To avoid bias, the researchers are supposed to remain objective throughout the research process. Seek permission from relevant authorities but avoid informing a study population that it's under scrutiny since the main objective of the study is to penetrate the subjective worlds of those studied, and to generally see those worlds from the participants point of view. The researcher should avoid imposing his/her own views upon the research elements but rather remain objective enough to collect data that represents the true picture of the research subjects. As compared to non-participant observation, where subjects tend to behave differently because they are aware that they are being studied, in this case subjects are not aware that they are being studied and therefore remain natural; this supports the collection of relevant and valid information.
Covert observation: This form of observation can as well be referred to as hidden observation or undercover observation. This is a form of observation where the researcher or observer is not known to the research subjects, the observer is usually out of sight or not revealed to the observed cohort.

For example;

A lecturer may strategically plant a camera in a lecturer room to observe a given group of students.
A parent may observe children over a given period of time; this could be behind a one-way glass.
A researcher may secretly observe a given community over a given period of time.

Note that;
The main concern in this form of observation is the ethical issue of informed consent. Therefore, researchers must always find ways to go about this for example seeking for permission from relevant authorities, if it's a university you may seek the permission of management but not the students being observed.

While observing, the researcher should do the following;

Ensure that you take notes
Take photos of relevant scenarios
Do video recordings.
Do audio recordings.
Sharpen your memory to capture important information until a point when you can actually record your information

Note that:
While undertaking the above, endeavor to be as private as possible mostly where the study subjects are not aware that they are being observed

Advantages:

Oldest research method.
Provides reliable, first-hand information.
Enables coding and recording real-time behavior.
Facilitates clarification of questions.
Elicits a high response rate.
Allows detailed information gathering using the senses.

Disadvantages:

Risk of respondents putting on a show.
Time-consuming.
Expensive.
Inability to observe past events.
Influenced by observer weaknesses.

4. Tests

Used for educational research to assess achievement or intelligence quotient.

5. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

The researcher is supposed to briefly describe the meaning of this method of data collection, provide a brief justification for choosing this method of data collection, describe which type of data is expected to be collected using this method, the instrument to be used and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.

Focus Group Discussion is therefore a data collection method mainly for collection of qualitative data in which a manageable group of people of a given study population are carefully selected into a discussion guided by a moderator/ facilitator (researcher) to freely articulate their perceptions, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, ideas and experiences about a certain topic of interest.

Qualities of a good Focus Group Discussion;

It must have a moderator who is knowledgeable
The Focus Group (FG) must not be less than 6 (six) members and not more than 12 members.
Members of the FG must share common characteristics which are relevant for the study. For example members may have similar levels of education, professions, Age group & Gender among others parameters.
Members of the FG must be selected from the study population of interest or sampling frame.
The FG must have guidelines to guide procedure.
It must be focused to the study area of interest
Members must be considered equally.
The moderator must have a predetermined list of open-ended questions.
The FG must rely on discussions among all participants rather than dominancy of the moderator and some "I know it all" members.

Remember that:
"Garbage-in- Garbage-Out"
implying that when you review substandard documents, your analysis will yield substandard findings, your inferences will be substandard and as well you will ultimately generate substandard

Functions of the moderator /Facilitator of a FGD;

To introduce the purpose of the discussion to all members
To start the session
To encourage free participation by all members.
To regulate behavior of all members and promote equity and equality
To ensure that the discussion remains in line with the study topic

Note that:
Avoid using one of the members of the FG as a recorder The moderator/Researcher should come along with a rapporteur or secretary who is highly qualified to take minutes, record proceeding, take photos and as well as a video coverage).

Advantages:

Gathers a variety of opinions.
Reaches a large number in a short time.
Encourages mutual checks among group members.
Involves directly affected individuals.
Provides comfort for those hesitant in larger groups.

Disadvantages:

Lacks anonymity.
Expensive and time-consuming.
Sensitive matters may limit open discussion.
Risk of dominance by one participant.
Group influence may generate desirable ideas.

6. Telephone Survey

Advantages:

Higher response rate than mail surveys.
Time-efficient.
Eliminates interviewer bias.
Covers a broader geographical area.
Offers comfort to shy respondents.
Cost-effective and convenient.
Allows probing during conversation.

Disadvantages:

Excludes respondents without telephones.
Difficulty in accessing phone numbers.
Prone to human weaknesses.

7. Mail Survey

Questionnaires mailed to respondents.
Applicable for widespread geographical studies.

For additional advantages and disadvantages, refer to those of a questionnaire.

8. Diary Method

Records events or occasions in a diary.
Provides valuable data on individual work patterns.

9. Experiments

The researcher is supposed to briefly describe the meaning of this method of data collection, describe which type of data is expected to be collected using this method, provide a brief justification for choosing this method of data collection, the instrument of data collection that will be used specifically for this method and the category of the study population to which this method will be applied.

Experiments help the researcher to collect quantitative data. It's therefore, a scientific procedure of data collection where the researcher sets up two equivalent groups/cohorts (Treatment group and Control group) then randomly selects elements into the treatment and control groups and subjects the treatment to an intervention but leaves the control without the intervention and then closely monitors the changes.

Key issues to note;

Subjects are randomly selected into each of the cohorts or there is randomization.
There are two groups, a control where the intervention is not administered and a treatment where the intervention.
There must be no external factors to influence cohorts.
The researcher must closely monitor the two groups.
The treatment and control groups must be equivalent.
The treatment and control groups must not know each other and should not interact.
There must be a specified period of time for the experiment
There must be set guidelines to regulate the experiment.

Note that;
This is the most expensive data collection method but as well very accurate if well regulated. Experiments are usually used in medical or clinical research and usually at 99% to 99.9% level of significance with a margin of error of 0.01 to 0.001, the smaller the margin of error the better and more reliable the findings in a medical or clinical research

Research Methods and Instruments For Data Collection Read More »

Sample Size Determination

Sample size determination, also known as sample size calculation or sample size estimation, is the process of determining the number of individuals or items to be included in a sample from a larger population for a research study.

Sample size is abbreviated as n
Study/Accessible Population is abbreviated as N
Margin of error is abbreviated as e (0.05 at 95% Confidence level)

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHILE DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

Research Objectives: Different objectives may require different sample sizes to achieve meaningful results. 📚
Population Size: Larger populations necessitate larger sample sizes to ensure representativeness. 🏢
Sampling Error: Smaller margins of error require larger sample sizes. ±📏
Confidence Level:Higher confidence levels generally result in larger sample size requirements. 🎯 expressed as a percentage (e.g., 95% confidence level).
Research Design: The chosen research design, whether experimental, observational, qualitative, or quantitative, can impact sample size. Each design has its own requirements. 📊🔍
Data Collection Methods: The methods used to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or observations, can influence the sample size. 📝🎙
Budget and Resource: Practical limitations, including budget constraints and available resources, can also influence your sample size decisions. 💰
Time: The time available to conduct the study can impact the sample size. Tight timelines may necessitate smaller, more manageable samples. ⏰
Ethical Considerations: Ethical principles, such as minimizing harm to participants, can influence sample size decisions, particularly in sensitive research areas. 🤝
Statistical Software and Tools: The availability of statistical software and tools for sample size calculations can streamline the process, ensuring accuracy in your estimates. 📈🖥️

HOW TO DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE

1. Census (for Small Populations):

A census involves including every member of the population in your sample. This method is highly advantageous for small populations because it eliminates sampling errors and provides data on every individual in the population.

NOTE: census is only feasible for small populations. Conducting a census for large populations may not be cost-effective and practical.

2. Transfer from a Similar Study:

Another approach is to transfer the sample size from a similar study with comparable objectives and characteristics. This strategy can save time and resources.

A potential disadvantage is that you might repeat the mistakes made in the previous study. Ensure the previous study was methodologically sound.

3. Using Internet Sample Size Calculators: This method utilizes the Internet sites that help one to determine the sample.

One Examples is: https://www.calculator.net/sample-size-calculator.html

4. Utilizing Published Tables:

Researchers can make use of published tables designed for sample size determination. One such example is the Krejcie & Morgan table of 1970, which helps researchers determine the sample size for a given population. Another example is Glenn(1992).

WHERE:

N is the Population
S is the Sample size you need to draw.

For example a For a population of 45 people, Krejcie & Morgan table advises a Sample of 40 people.

For 10 people, Sample is 10, requiring a Census due to the small number of people.

These tables are a valuable resource and provide guidance on sample size selection, taking into account factors like population size, confidence levels, and error margins.

5. Applying Standardized Formulas:

A widely accepted method involves applying standardized sample size formulas, such as the one developed by

Kish and Leslie in 1965.

The formula is as follows:

n = Z²pq / d²,

where

Target Population: 500 diabetic patients attending Goma Health Center in Mukono District.
Confidence Level: 95%
Margin of Error: 5% (0.05)
Prevalence: historical data indicating that around 40% of patients at Goma Health Center are diabetic (p = 0.40).

Using Kish and Leslie Formula:

n = Z²pq / d²

Where:

n = Sample size
Z = Z-score for the desired confidence level (1.96 for 95% confidence)
p = Assumed true population prevalence of diabetic patients
q = Complement of p (1-p)
d = Margin of Error (0.05)

n = (1.96)² X 0.40 X (1 – 0.40) / (0.05)²

n ≈ 346.18

In this scenario, you would need a sample size of approximately 347 diabetic patients attending Goma Health Center in Mukono District to estimate the true population prevalence with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error.

II. Yamane formula, developed by Taro Yamane in 1967.

The formula is as follows:

n = N / (1 + Ne²)

Where:

n = Sample size
N = Population size (500)
e = Desired level of precision (0.05)

n = 500 / (1 + 500 X (0.05)²)

n ≈ 333.33

In this scenario, you would need a sample size of approximately 333 diabetic patients attending Goma Health Center in Mukono District to achieve the desired level of precision (5%).

6. USING UNMEB GUIDELINES

3.4.2 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

A sampling procedure is a defined and systematic method for selecting a subset (sample) from a larger group (population) for the purpose of conducting research or collecting data.

It involves the steps and techniques used to ensure that the sample accurately represents the population, allowing researchers to draw meaningful conclusions from the sample’s data.

Sample Size Determination Read More »

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

INTRODUCTION

Education is an activity in which a variety of resources are put, these resources include money, time, labor, instructional materials, etc. We need to find out whether we are benefiting from putting all these resources into the education of our learners. To do this, we use measurement, assessment, testing, and evaluation.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information that determines the effectiveness (value) of an educational program in the light of evidence obtained through research, assessment, measurement, testing, experimenting, and consulting. Thus, evaluation can also be defined as the process of judging the value or worth of an individual’s achievements. It attempts to provide useful feedback information to stakeholders. It facilitates the judgment of what extent the educational objectives have been met.

Assessments

In education, the term assessment means the process of documenting in quantitative terms the knowledge, skills, and values attained by the learner. Currently in Ugandan higher institutions, there is continuous assessment being emphasized. The results of continuous assessment help teachers keep an accumulative record that may be used to assess the overall performance of the learner.

Testing

This is a way of discovering by questions or practical activities what someone knows or what someone can do. Educationally, we test our learners to find out how much knowledge and skills they possess, and what values and attributes they have developed.

Measurement

This refers to assigning numbers to a learning program or event in order to describe or represent the amount of abilities, characteristics, and potential possessed by a learner. Measurement describes a situation in quantitative terms, while evaluation judges its worth or value in qualitative terms, such as good or poor.

PURPOSE / AIMS OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Diagnosis: It helps us to understand the problem existing within the program; therefore, appropriate action can be taken.
Placement and Promotion (Selection): It helps us correctly find where the individual should belong, i.e., who can be promoted to another class or who goes for which course based on aggregates, e.g., primary leavers are selected according to aggregate got, i.e., whether a student of aggregate 6 can go to Kisubi or whether a student who did MEG can do law.
Certification: It is the only way one can satisfy the assessment committee to provide evidence about the attainment of a particular skill, e.g., a degree certificate, driving permit, etc.
Standards: It helps the teachers to establish a reference point, i.e., the minimum entry point, e.g., At UNMEB exams, a standard is 50% in every paper, which was determined based on how students used to score in the past.
Prediction: The stakeholders are able to determine the future potentials/weaknesses of individuals, e.g., a student who performs well in Physics is likely to be an engineer.
Refinement: The information from the evaluation can help us to improve on the programs by identifying where we are weak. E.g., a teacher looks at the students’ work and sees what topic they have failed, then the teacher tries to simplify his/her teaching.
Norms referencing: It helps us to compare an individual against other individuals or against the system. E.g., a student in the 5th position out of 40 students can be determined by assessments.
Remediation: Results of assessment are a basis for correcting learning responses and clarification of misconceptions. A teacher might decide to organize a remedial class to correct the challenges that students faced during assessments.
Motivation: Feedback from assessment is motivation for future aspiration among learners. For example, a student can be motivated to read harder after good performance in an exam.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A TOOL OF ASSESSMENT

Purpose of evaluation: In the evaluation of learners’ progress, one should first identify the learning outcomes to be measured. For example, in nursing education, outcomes could be that learners should possess knowledge in disease management, skills in nursing procedures, and a good attitude in patient care.
Availability of assessment tools: No single evaluation tool is adequate for assessing learners’ progress; make sure you use a variety of techniques to obtain a complete picture of the students’ achievements. Use what is available and can be administered to the learners. For example, a theory exam can evaluate learners’ knowledge, and a practical exam evaluates their skills and attitudes.
Validity: It is a concern about how well the test measures what it is supposed to measure. For example, measuring students’ intelligence using a tape measure around the circumference of the head will not provide accurate measurements of intelligence, so the validity of this tool will be weak.
Reliability: It measures how consistent the scores obtained by different examiners are, determining how stable a measurement is.
Practicality: Refers to the action of the assessment method and its relevance to the overall learning goals in the course, addressing whether or not the workload for the instructor is reasonable.
Ease of interpretation of results: The evaluation tool used should enhance the teacher’s ability to interpret the results for student performance.
Time frame: The available time determines which evaluation tool to use, allowing students to complete the assigned tasks in an appropriate time.
Costs and resources available: The evaluation should use techniques that are economical and require little funds, human resources, and time.

TYPES/FORMS OF ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION

There are two major forms to evaluate a student’s learning:

Formative Assessment:
- This is a form of assessment that allows the teacher to check for student understanding along the way, as the lesson or unit is being taught.
- In the day-to-day teaching, teachers continuously check on how students are learning. This includes the questions they ask when teaching, the exercises they give, homework, weekly tests, etc.
Functions of Formative Assessment:
- It gives teachers the ability to provide constant feedback to the students.
- It allows the students to be part of the learning environment and to develop self-assessment strategies that will help with the understanding of their own thought process.
- Yields decisions on the improvement of content delivery.
- It determines which objectives individual students have achieved.
- It ensures that students have learned certain things before they progress to the next level.
Summative Assessment:
- This refers to the assessment of participants where the focus is on the outcome of a program. It evaluates student learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period, e.g., PLE, UACE, end-of-year exams.

INTERPRETATION OF MEASUREMENT

There are two types of interpreting measurements:

Norm-Referenced Measurement:
- The norm-referenced approach involves comparing the scores of an individual with those of other learners in the same category.
- It helps differentiate among individuals by comparing the position of one individual against others in the same group.
- For example, a score of 70% by Agnes may place her in the 2nd position in that group, while a score of 84% by Mary in another group may place her in the 10th position.
Criterion-Referenced Measurement:
- These measurements are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards.
- It does not concern itself with other students but rather focuses on an individual.
- It’s concerned about what one can and cannot do.
- For example, the UNMEB examination system has a pass mark of 50%, where one can be considered to have failed (if below 50%) or passed (if above 50%).

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES/TOOLS THAT CAN BE USED IN HEALTH TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

There are various ways through which assessment and evaluations can be conducted in classrooms. These include:

a) Observation

b) Oral examinations

c) Written examinations

d) Practical examinations

OBSERVATION

Observation involves assessing one’s academic progress based on observation by the teacher.

It can involve seeing students’ behavior and listening to oral contributions to evaluate the learners’ attitude, learning speed, style, intelligence, personal abilities, and progress. This technique can detect problems immediately so that corrective measures can be employed, but it’s prone to prejudice and bias from the teacher as the observer.

ORAL EXAMINATIONS

Oral examinations involve a face-to-face question and answer between the teacher (examiner) and the student (examinee).

The teacher asks questions and finally scores the candidate based on the quality of the responses from the learner. Examples include interviews, quizzes, panel discussions, case presentations, etc. In nursing, traditional oral practical exams were conducted where the teacher would vary questions asked from one student to another.

WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS

Teacher-made tests are the most widely used written examination for assessing learning. The construction of these tests fundamentally depends on the teacher and can be categorized into two types: Objective and Subjective tests.

OBJECTIVE TESTS

Objective tests predominantly assess using short responses or answers. They include multiple-choice, true/false (binary test), matching, and completion (fill-in) questions.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ’s):

MCQs present a statement or question to which several responses are given, with only one response being correct. The statement/item is referred to as the stem, the correct response as the Key, and other options or alternative responses as destructors.

Guidelines for Preparing Meaningful MCQs

Use simple vocabulary.
Ensure the stem is clear and specific.
Make sure the destructors are capable of separating.
Avoid questions that measure opinions or judgments.
Use numerical answers in ascending order.
Avoid providing insight/idea to the answer while writing the stem.
When using words like NOT or EXCEPT, they should be bolded or underlined.

Matching Items

Matching items present students with a list of statements and a list of responses, with a set of directions for matching them.

Guidelines for Preparing Matching Tests

Use homogeneous options/items.
Provide clear directions to students on how to match the responses.
Avoid the use of specific determiners that may provide clues to the responses.

Binary Test

This type involves a statement or item to which judgment is made either in agreement or disagreement, typically with forms like true or false, agree or disagree, and yes or no.

Guidelines for Binary Test Preparation

Use clear and understandable language. Try always to avoid words that are partly true and partly false.
Avoid using negative statements. e.g. Kerosene is not a solid. True/False.
Avoid long, complex sentences.
Avoid including 2 or more ideas in one sentence e.g Gentamycin is an antibiotic that is given by I.V. true/false
Don’t use terms that provide clues about the right answer. Words like NEVER, NONE, OR, e.t.c. which are likely to be false. On the other hand, words like Sometimes, Usually, Likely…
Avoid copying statements from textbooks.
Vary options to avoid guesswork.
Have an equal number of true and false questions to prevent guesswork.

Completion/Fill-in-Blanks Tests

Such a test requires that spaces are left between the items so that the respondent can fill them in with one word or many words.

Guidelines for Fill-In Test Preparation (Completion/Fill-in-Blanks Tests)

Such a test requires that spaces are left between the items so that the respondent can fill them in with one word or many words.

Construct items that measure important objectives in the area of study.
Pose specific problems to the examinees so they give brief and specific responses.
Use precise and accurate language in the questions.
Ensure the expected answers from students are factually correct.
Avoid using too many blanks.
Put blank spaces at the end rather than starting questions with them.
Avoid using exact statements as they appear in the notes to prevent guesswork.
Preferably use statements that require one correct answer, not many.
Have a wide scope of content coverage.
Avoid questions that require lengthy answers; use statement definitions instead, e.g., the process of allocating marks to different questions in a test is called.

Merits of Objective Tests

Easy to assess, correct, and mark.
Balancing and controlling the level of difficulty is feasible.
Provides a high level of reliability.
Encourages extensive work from students.
Reduces speculation among students.
Offers a wide scope of content and syllabus coverage.

Demerits of Objective Tests

Difficult to prepare.
Susceptible to guesswork.
Does not encourage higher-order thinking like subjective tests.
Does not provide an opportunity for planning and organizing.
Measures superficial knowledge of the student.

SUBJECTIVE TESTS

This is a mode in which each question or item requires an elaborate description and explanation. Therefore, there is no exact or simple answer. They include short-answer and essay items.

Short-Answer Items:

Requires students to supply a word, short phrase, number, or other type of brief response. E.G List 4 characteristics of adult learners

Essay Items:

Essay items require students to write paragraphs or develop themes as responses. They involve a wider variety of thinking skills, as students must recall, select, organize, and apply.

Guidelines for Preparing a Good Subjective Assessment

Keep questions focused and specific.
Use grammatical expressions at the level of the students (e.g., list, outline, state). Avoid vague expressions like mention, identify, tell us, show us.
Consider the available time for taking the test.
Allocate marks for each item (e.g., a) Define the term memory (1 mark), b) Describe the relationship between memory and learning (5 marks).
Avoid compounding items (e.g., Discuss the structure, function, and adaptations of the liver [25 marks]). Break it into parts (a) Describe the structure of the liver [7 marks], b) Outline the functions of the liver [10 marks], c) Illustrate the adaptations of the liver for its functions [8 marks].

Advantages of Subjective Tests

Measures the evidence of clear understanding of the content.
Relatively easy to construct and prepare.
Allows for critical and high-order thinking.
Assesses the ability to organize one’s own ideas.
Tests skills of analysis and planning.
Measures divergence in thinking.

Limitations

Poor content coverage.
Promotes speculations among test takers.
Time-consuming to score and not always reliable.
May be influenced by bias, such as handwriting, language used, or the test taker’s personal information.
Can be misinterpreted by the test taker.

PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONS

Practical examinations are used to evaluate nursing competence in practical skills. Currently, Objective Structured Clinical/Practical Examination (OSCE/OSPE) is the test method used in nursing education to assess practical skills.
Examiners use a checklist to evaluate trainees, providing the same problem and tasks to all students within the same time frame. The tasks simulate real clinical situations, including history taking, physical examinations, simple procedures, interpretation of lab results, patient management problems, communication, and attitude, among others. All students are assessed on the same criteria using a checklist by the same examiners.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Read More »

Lesson Plan

Lesson plan is a plan prepared by a teacher to teach a lesson in an organized manner.

It is obtained from the scheme of work which was designed earlier.(Scheme of work)

SAMPLE OF A LESSON PLAN.

LESSON PLAN 1

SET: DN-2
COURSE UNIT: MEDICAL NURSING II
TUTOR: NASES REVIJONI

Date	Time	Average Age of Students	Expected Number of Students	Number of Students Present
29/10/2023	8:00-9:00 AM (1 HOUR)	Above 20 years	5

Topic: DIABETES MELLITUS (DM)

Objectives:

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

Define Diabetes Mellitus
State the 3 causes of DM
Describe the 2 types of Diabetes Mellitus
List 5 predisposing factors to Diabetes Mellitus

Teaching Methods/Techniques:

Interactive lecture
Brainstorming technique
Question and answer technique

Teaching Aids:

References
Laptop
Projector
Flip chart containing lesson objectives & pointer

References:

David, K. M. (2018). General Principles of Insulin Therapy in Diabetes Mellitus. 2UpToDate. Retrieved from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/general-principles-of-insulin-therapy-in-diabetes-mellitus.
Stephen R. Bloom (Ed.). (2009). Toohey’s Medicine, a Textbook for Students in the Healthcare Professions (15th ed.). London, USA: Churchill Livingstone.
Uganda Catholic Medical Bureau (2015). Nursing and Midwifery Procedure Manual (2nd ed). Kampala, Uganda: Print Innovations & Publishers, pp. 166-168.

Time and Step	Content	Tutor’s Activities	Student’s Activities
1 (02 minutes)	Greeting Roll call	– Greets students – Makes roll call by calling students’ names	– Respond to greeting – Respond to their names
2 (05 minutes)	Review of previous lesson	– Reviews previous lesson by asking students about what was covered in that lesson.	– Respond to teacher’s questions
3 (05 minutes)	Introduction of the lesson objectives on Diabetes Mellitus	– Displays flip chart containing lesson objectives – Chooses one student to read what has been displayed – Provides clear linkage between previous and current lesson	-look at flip chart contents -reads what is displayed on flipchart and others listen -listen to the linkage between previous and current lesson
4 (13 minutes)	Signs and symptoms of DM	– Asks students to contribute to signs and symptoms of DM using mind-mapping brain storming technique -Clarifies the signs and symptoms of DM	-come and write their contributes on white board in a ‘mind-map – listen and take notes
5 (25 minutes)	Pathophysiology of DM	– Asks students the meaning of patho-physiology -Clarifies the meaning of patho- physiology -Tells students to form pairs and allocated specific signs of DM for discussion of how they manifest in DM (patho- physiology) – calls back discussion and gets students’ responses	-Respond to the meaning of patho-physiology -listen to the clarification -form pairs to disouss how signs of DM manifest -present the allocated task that has been discussed in there group. – look at the displayed chart. – listen to teacher’s explanations. – draw flow diagram on patho-physiology of DM.
6 (10 minutes)	Evaluation and Conclusion of Lesson	-Evaluates lesson by asking questions as per objectives -Summarizes the lesson on DM -reads assignment to students; 1.List down the normal ranges of: -Random blood sugar (RBS) -Fasting blood sugar (FBS) 2.Apart from diagnostic testing, identify 4 relevant tests necessary to be done on a DM patient and their rationale -Thanks students for their participation	-Student respond to questions asked -Students listen to teachers summary -Students listen and note down the assignment -Student respond to teacher’s appreciation

CHALK/WHITEBOARD PLAN

Date	Content	New Words
29/10/2022	Greeting, Roll call, Review of previous lesson, Introduction of the lesson objectives on Diabetes Mellitus, Signs and symptoms of DM, Patho-physiology of DM	Diabetes Mellitus, patho-physiology, mind-mapping, brain storming, allocations.

COMMENTS/SELF EVALUATION

Strength	Challenges	Way Forward
Teamwork	Limited resources	Resource mobilization and optimization

CLINICAL SESSION PLAN

This is a plan prepared by a teacher to conduct a practical session in an organized manner. Its different from lesson plan as shown below.

NURSES REVISION SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES

CLINICAL SESSION PLAN 1

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN NURSING

COURSE UNIT: MEDICAL NURSING II

LECTURER: NASESI REVISION

Date	Time	Average Age of Students	Expected Number of Students	Number of Students Present
29/10/2022	30 minutes	Above 20 years	5

Topic: INSULIN ADMINISTRATION

Objectives: By the end of the clinical session, students should be able to;

Assemble requirements needed to administer insulin.
Administer insulin to a diabetic patient using the demonstration and return demonstration technique.

Teaching Methods/Techniques: Demonstration and return demonstration technique.

Teaching Aids:

Procedure checklist
Prescription note/patient’s chart
Simulated Patient
Glucometer plus strips
Prickers
Sliding scale chart
Insulin vial and syringes
2 pairs of surgical and disposable gloves
A tray and tray cover
Galipot of antiseptic solution
Galipot of cotton swabs
Receiver for used swabs
Safety box
Screen
Hand washing equipment

References:

Uganda Catholic Medical Bureau (2015). Nursing and Midwifery procedure manual (2nd ed). Kampala, Uganda: Print innovations & publishers. Pg 166-168

Step and Time	Content	Tutor’s Activities	Students’ Activities
1 (05 minutes)	Pre-conferencing about procedure on insulin administration	– Greets students – Briefs students on the procedure of insulin administration – Assembles requirements – Cautions students on infection prevention and ethical issues	– Respond to greeting – Listen to the tutor’s briefing on the procedure of insulin administration – Observe the requirements needed – Listen to the cautions on the procedure
2 (10 minutes)	Demonstration of the procedure on insulin administration	– Demonstrates procedure step by step while briefing students on key steps; Step 1: Obtains consent Step 2: Observes Privacy Step 3: Hand washing Step 4: Brings requirements to bed side Step 5: puts on gloves Step 6: Measuring RBS and estimates the dose of insulin to be given. Step 7: Withdrawing the medicine into the syringe Step 8: Select the site and disinfect it Step 9: Administers the drug Step 11: Place a swab over the needle and withdraws the needle quickly and smoothly Step 12: Thanks and leaves the patient comfortable Step 13: Record the drug given in the patient’s chart and signs Step 14: Clear away the equipment	– Observe attentively tutor performing the procedure of insulin administration
3 (10 minutes)	Return demonstration of the procedure on insulin administration	– Requests one student to do a return demonstration on insulin administration – Allocates tasks on the procedure to other students – Observes the student performing the procedure – Scores the student using a checklist and also allocates other 2 students to score their colleague	– One volunteers to perform a return demonstration – Everyone performs the allocated task – Performs a return procedure on insulin administration while others observe – The 2 students also score their colleague as he/she performs step by step
4 (05 minutes)	Post-conferencing	– Asks the volunteer student to evaluate him/herself – Requests other students to critique the volunteer student – Gives feedback about the procedure of insulin administration – Encourages the students to keep practicing when they get time in order to perfect	– The volunteer students evaluate him/herself – Other students evaluate their colleague – Students listen to the students’ feedback

COMMENTS/SELF EVALUATION

Strength	Challenges	Way Forward
Effective pre-conferencing to prepare students	Time constraints during practical sessions	Allocate more time for practical sessions
Clear and organized demonstration of the procedure	Ensuring that every student gets the opportunity to perform the return demonstration	Rotate students to perform return demonstrations
Encouraging self-evaluation and peer evaluation	Scoring can be subjective; may need a more objective scoring system	Implement a standardized scoring system and provide clear criteria for scoring
Active student participation during the session	Availability of required equipment and materials for practical sessions may be a challenge	Ensure that all necessary equipment is readily available
Providing constructive feedback to students	Maintaining students’ motivation and enthusiasm for continuous practice	Organize periodic practice sessions to sustain students’ interest

Lesson Plan Read More »

SCHEME OF WORK

Scheme(teacher’s scheme) of work is, therefore, their plan of action, which should enable them to organize teaching activities ahead of time.

It is a summarized forecast of work that the teacher considers adequate and appropriate for the class to cover within a given period from those topics already set in the syllabus.

A scheme of work can be made to cover one week, one month, one term, or even one year, depending on the duration of a given program. Ideally, schemes of work should be prepared before classes begin.

COMPONENTS OF A SCHEME OF WORK

Name of Organization/Institution: Refers to where one is working or training.
Tutor’s Name: The person owning/designing the scheme of work.
Trainees Level: Refers to the grade level in training, e.g., diploma in midwifery.
Subject/Course Unit: This refers to the subject being schemed, which may be theory or practical, e.g., teaching methodology.
Duration/Period of Preparation: Refers to the time frame the scheme of work will be completed. It includes the year of study and semester of that particular group of learners.

The table is then drawn with 10 columns containing the following:

Week: Most institutions are specific in time allocation, and each week should be spelled out in the week column. Weeks should be separated by a line running across the page, especially when the same scheme of work form contains more than one week.
Number of Periods: The subject may have one, two, or more periods in one week. Some periods may be single, double, or triple. When two spaced periods are indicated on the timetable in the same week, then there should be two distinct rows for two periods. The numbering process should be repeated for the other weeks.
Topic/Sub-topic: The topics in the syllabus need to be rearranged in the order in which they are supposed to be taught, e.g., teaching-learning process. This should be clear and definite. The instructor should single out all the sub-topics/lesson titles in a particular syllabus topic.
Objectives: Each sub-topic/lesson title should be followed by an objective(s), which is meant to pinpoint the anticipated learning behavior of the learners.
Content: What subject matter will be covered in that period. It includes all the important headings based on the objectives.
Methods/Techniques: Teaching methods and techniques to be used. This depends on the set objectives of that period.
Teaching Aids: Resource materials for specific content coverage used in scheming are necessary and should be noted down with their relevant pages for ease in reference during lesson planning. References include chalkboards, books, handouts, reports, etc.
Teacher’s References: The various sources of reference that the teacher used to gather the content of that lesson.
Students’ References: What references does the teacher recommend students to use for further reading and when doing assignments? These need to be part of the teacher’s references that are accessible to learners, simpler to understand, and rich in content.
Remarks/Comment: Remarks in the scheme of work should be made immediately the lesson is over. The teacher is supposed to indicate whether what was planned for the period has been covered, whether there was overplanning or a failure of the lesson and reasons for either case.

SCHEME OF WORK

SCHOOL: NURSES REVISION SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES
TUTOR’S NAME: NASES REVIJONI
COURSE: DIPLOMA IN NURSING
COURSE UNIT: MEDICAL NURSING II
YEAR OF STUDY: YEAR TWO, SEMESTER ONE
NO. OF PERIODS PER WEEK: 3 (1 HOUR EACH)

Week	Number of Periods	Topic	Sub-topic	Objectives	Content	Methods/Techniques	Teaching Aids	Teacher’s References	Students’ References	Remarks/Comment
1	1	MEDICAL CONDITIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM	Diabetes mellitus (DM)	By the end of the week, students should be able to: Define DM State the 3 causes of DM Describe the 2 types of DM List five predisposing factors to DM	– Definition of DM – Causes of DM – Types of DM -Predisposing factors	Interactive lecture, Brainstorming technique, Question and answer technique	Whiteboard illustrations, Flip chart containing lesson objectives & pointer	Workman and Donna. 2006, Berkow and Beers. 1999, Stephen. 2009, UCG. 2016	Workman and Donna. 2006, Stephen. 2009, Signs and symptoms of DM, Brainstorming technique, Whiteboard illustrations, 2 Flip charts containing Workman and Donna. 2006, Workman and Donna. 2006	Remarks should be made immediately after the lesson. The teacher should indicate whether what was planned for the period has been covered, whether there was overplanning or a failure of the lesson and reasons for either case.
	2	MEDICAL CONDITIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM	Signs and symptoms of DM	By the end of the week, students should be able to: State 5 signs and symptoms of DM Describe the pathophysiology	Signs and symptoms of DM Pathophysiology of DM Diagnostic investigation	Interactive lecture, Brainstorming technique, Question and answer technique	Whiteboard illustrations, Flip chart containing lesson objectives & pointer	Workman and Donna. 2006, Berkow and Beers. 1999, Stephen. 2009, UCG. 2016	Workman and Donna. 2006, Stephen. 2009, Signs and symptoms of DM, Brainstorming technique, Whiteboard illustrations, 2 Flip charts containing Workman and Donna. 2006, Workman and Donna. 2006	Remarks should be made immediately after the lesson. The teacher should indicate whether what was planned for the period has been covered, whether there was overplanning or a failure of the lesson and reasons for either case.

REFERENCES:

Berkow, R., & Beers, M. H. (1999). The Merck Manual of Medical Information. West Point, USA: Merck Research Laboratories.
David, K. M. (2018). General Principles of Insulin Therapy in Diabetes Mellitus. UpToDate. Retrieved from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/general-principles-of-insulin-therapy-in-diabetes-mellitus.
Stephen R. Bloom (Ed.). (2009). Toohey’s Medicine, a Textbook for Students in the Healthcare Professions (15th ed.). London, USA: Churchill Livingstone.
Uganda Catholic Medical Bureau (2015). Nursing and Midwifery Procedure Manual (2nd ed). Kampala, Uganda: Print Innovations & Publishers, pp. 166-168.
Uganda Clinical Guidelines (2016). National Guidelines for the Management of Common Conditions. Kampala, Uganda: Ministry of Health.
Workman, L. M., & Donna, D. I. (2006). Medical-Surgical: Critical Thinking for Collaborative Care (5th ed, Volumes 1 & 2). PA, USA: Elsevier Saunders.

That’s for week 1, you can add week 2, and follow the above guide! Ref: Also note that references are part of the scheme of work!

LESSON PLAN

Click here

SCHEME OF WORK Read More »

Planning Teaching

PLANNING TEACHING

Teaching plan is a document that outlines the structure and details of a single session.

A good teaching plan is a comprehensive write-up of the step-by-step teaching methods, the estimated duration of each segment of teaching, and the materials and resources needed for the session.

Importance of Drawing a Teaching Plan/Lesson Plan

Teaching planning is essential as it provides a guide for the day’s lessons and gives the teacher a clear direction for the day’s activities. Here are some key reasons for its importance:

It organizes the subject matter effectively.
It prevents thoughtless teaching.
It fosters the proper atmosphere for the learning process.
It ensures that the learning objectives (integral components of the lesson plan) are central to all classroom activities.
It allows the teacher to design an assessment plan to evaluate whether the class has met its targets.
It provides clarity on when to start the evaluation and when to proceed to the next lesson.
Lesson plans promote organized teaching and save time.
They enable the teacher to select appropriate teaching strategies.
They make the teacher more prepared and confident while teaching the lesson.

Note: FAIL TO PLAN = PLAN TO FAIL

Factors to Consider When Planning Teaching

Needs, Capabilities, and Interests of the Learner: It’s important to understand the individual needs, capabilities, and interests of your students. This knowledge guides your teaching approach and ensures that your lessons are engaging and relevant to your learners.
Psychological Knowledge of the Learner: Familiarize yourself with what your students already know or have learned from their previous teachers. This knowledge is crucial for effective instruction and helps you build upon their existing knowledge.
Learning Experience: Define the learning experiences you want your students to gain. This will help you determine the most suitable method for delivering the content and engaging your students effectively.
Social and Physical Environment of the Learner: Create a conducive environment for learning the subject matter. Ensure that the classroom environment supports the learning objectives, making it easier for students to focus and participate.
Lesson Plan Materials/Tools: Utilize a variety of resources and materials to enhance your lesson plan’s success. Consider using audio/visual aids, the latest technologies, and library resources to support your teaching materials.
Goals and Results (Learning Objectives): Clearly outline the goals and expected results for your lesson plan and your students. This provides a clear direction for both you and your learners.
The Content/Subject Matter: Possess a thorough understanding of the content you’ll be teaching. Study the topic, and ensure you have mastery of the subject matter to effectively convey it to your students.
Evaluation and Feedback: Continuously evaluate and correct your lessons. Use methods like questions, quizzes, and feedback from both teachers and students to ensure that learning is taking place and that you have achieved your goals.

CURRICULUM

Curriculum refers to the subjects comprising a course of study in a school or college. A curriculum is also a plan or program of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school.

TYPES OF CURRICULA

Official curriculum/Intended curriculum: This is the curriculum as written down on paper in syllabuses.
Actual curriculum/Operational curriculum: This is what is implemented in practice in schools.
Assessed/examined curriculum: This is that part of the taught curriculum that is actually assessed.
Null curriculum: This is curriculum that we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society, such as critical thinking, inquiry, and intellectual development.

DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM:

Curriculum determinants are the factors influencing a particular type of curriculum design.

Educational philosophy: Educational philosophy is a crucial determinant of the curriculum development process by helping clarify our thought and mind process. The purpose of nursing education is to bring about desirable behavioral changes in nursing students to enable them to render comprehensive nursing.
Educational psychology: This enables us to follow the psychological development of learners and helps us know whether the children have developed adequately to be able to understand certain concepts. For example, in the first year, nurses start with microbiology, anatomy, and physiology, and then advance to medical and surgical content in the second year.
Society: There are many aspects of society that need consideration in curriculum making, such as culture, health needs, socioeconomic issues e.t.c Therefore there is need to include what is applicable and relevant to the society.
Student: Since modern curriculum is student-centered, nursing education must address the needs of the students without neglecting patient’s rights. Additionally, it should prepare students for the future by enabling them to fulfill other roles in addition to those of a professional nurse.
Knowledge: Knowledge that students need to acquire. Increased specialization has led to individuals focusing on specific segments of knowledge. For example, midwives may not study surgical nursing and medical nursing because they specialize in midwifery. This has led to an explosion of knowledge and specialization. Therefore, specific criteria should be established for selecting the knowledge to be included in a particular curriculum.
Resources: The development of a viable curriculum depends on the availability of tangible and intangible resources. Tangible resources include teachers, textbooks, and physical facilities, while intangible resources encompass motivation, interest, and intelligence.

ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM

The most commonly used model, known as Wheeler’s model, comprises five components:

AIMS, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES: Aims, goals, and objectives pertain to a terminal point towards which we are working or heading.
- Aims: Aims are the broadest statements that convey the values held for an educational program. For example, the aim of universal primary education in Uganda today is to enhance socio-economic development.
- Goals: Goals are a more specific form of aims. They describe the purposes of a course and provide curriculum planners with a foundation for selecting curriculum content. For instance, the goal of universal primary education is to ensure that all school-age children attend school to acquire basic education.
- Objectives: Objectives are specific statements outlining what learners should be capable of doing after experiencing the curriculum or a portion of it. Objectives are categorized at two levels: Curriculum and instructional objectives.
CONTENT: Content refers to subject matter or what knowledge, concepts, principles, generalizations, theories, techniques, and procedures are to be used in a particular subject. In curriculum, the criteria for selection of content are:
1. Validity: Content is valid if it promotes the outcomes it is supposed to promote. This is the extent to which selected content is true.
2. Significance: Refers to the suitability of the material chosen to meet certain needs and ability levels of the learners.
3. Needs and interests of the learner: Learnability; It must also be consistent with social realities.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES: Learning experiences are the interactions between the learner and the environment within the school setting, determining what the learners will be able to do by the end of the course. Criteria for selecting learning experiences consider the following:
- Conformity with objective: The experiences must align with the curriculum objectives to give students the opportunity to practice the desired behaviors.
- Learnability: Learning experiences should be adjusted to the learners’ abilities and differences, starting from where the student knows.
- Interest: Students are likely to interact with stimulating situations.
- Relevance to life: Learners must see the purpose of education in their everyday lives.
- Consistency with social reality: Learning experiences must align with the actual situation at home or in society.
- Variety: Creativity in choosing from a range of educational experiences aiming at the same objectives.
- Satisfaction: Learning experiences should provide satisfaction from carrying out the desired behavior implied by the objectives.
EVALUATION: Evaluation is the process of determining how far or to what extent the learning experiences developed, organized, and exposed are actually producing the desired outcomes. It enables comparison of actual outcomes with expected outcomes (or objectives) and leads to conclusions for further action.

SYLLABUS

A syllabus is a document that communicates information about a specific course unit and defines expectations and responsibilities. It provides relevant qualifications for teaching the class.

Elements of syllabus:

General course information, That tells students what the course is about, why the course is important, and generally what they can expect from the course. This section will include;

the course title,
course description,
course learning outcomes or objectives.

2. Specific course information, That tells students exactly what will be required of them throughout the course , when in the term they will be required to do what and how their work in the course will be evaluated. This section will include;

content to be covered in specified time,
detailing required assignments,
assignment descriptions, required
recommended texts,
required examinations,
course calendar, and
grading overview and criteria.

SCHEME OF WORK

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Study Population & Sampling

Study population and sampling are helpful to the researcher in that it helps to classify the population that you expect to study. You are supposed to create a state that take population and provide a brief justification for this population and why you think it is the best population for this study.

DEFINITIONS:

A sample: Is a subset (a part) of a population. Ideally, a researcher should use the whole population to collect data but resources may not be enough. Hence one has to resort to using a sample.
A study sample: Is a subset of the accessible population that participates in the study.
Sampling: is an act of selecting a small number of subjects upon which a study is conducted to represent the population. The result of the sample is assumed to represent the whole population. Sampling is not necessary if the population is small.

In normal circumstances, the bigger the sample size, the higher the level of accuracy.

Sample size: these are the number of respondents to get involved in the study, For example, a sample size of 150 people.
Population: Is the total of items or subjects in a set; with relevant characteristics that a researcher needs. It is the total number of potential respondents for the study.
Target population: The large set of the population to which the results will be generalized – all teenagers with asthma, for example.
Accessible population: Is the subset of the target population that is available for study – teenagers with asthma living in the investigator’s town this year, for example.
Homogeneous population: consists of subjects with specific characteristics in common.
Heterogeneous population: consists of subjects differentiated by specific identifiable features, for example, age, sex, educational background.

Sample study considers a subset of the population while census study considers/examines all members of a population.

Why (Importance of) sampling?

To manage effectively large and dispersed populations.
To minimize the cost of conducting the study.
To save time.
To improve on the accuracy of findings.
To carry out a less demanding study.
To reduce the level of destruction in case where sampling involves destroying items sampled.
Common in medical research.

Sampling Methods

A sampling method is a procedure for selecting sample elements from a population.

Random or Probability Sampling Methods
Non-random or Non-probability sampling methods.

The choice of a sampling method depends on a number of factors. Some factors are the following:

The type of population one is to sample from.
The degree of accuracy one wants.
The resources available, especially time and money.
The homogeneity of the population.
The urgency of the findings.

1. Random Sampling Method

Every element in the population has the same probability (equal chances) of selection.

Advantages of Random methods:

Offers equal chances to all members in the set to be selected.
Eliminates bias.
Improves the validity of the study.
Easy to administer.
Provides statistical means of manipulating data.

Disadvantages of Random methods:

They require a sample frame of all members of a finite population (a list of members).
There may be a possibility of un-proportional representation of strata in heterogeneous populations (over-representing or under-representing).

Random sampling methods include:

Simple random sampling.
Stratified random sampling.
Systematic sampling.
Multistage sampling.
Territorial sampling.
Cluster sampling.

Simple random sampling:

The principle of simple random sampling is that every object has the same probability of being chosen (purely random).

There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the use of a lottery method.

Procedure of the lottery:

Each member of the population is assigned a unique number or name. The numbers are written on similar pieces of paper, which are folded, placed in a bowl, and thoroughly mixed.
Then, a blindfolded researcher selects one at a time without replacement until he/she has the required number of subjects in the sample.

Summary of Simple random sampling technique:

Determine the population of interest by specific characteristics.
Decide on the sample size.
Create a sample frame (list all subjects).
Select subjects randomly from the sample frame (using the lottery or a random number table).

Advantages of simple random sampling: See those for random sampling above.

Disadvantages of simple random sampling: In case of a heterogeneous population, one subgroup may be under or over-represented leading to bias.

Stratified random sampling:

A population may have subgroups in which a researcher is interested. For example, one may want to ensure that both girls and boys are represented in the sample.

The population is thus divided into subgroups or layers (strata) to represent the subgroups before the sample is drawn.

What is important is that the percentage of the subgroups in the sample must be the same as that in the population. For example, if the percentage of boys and girls in the population are 70% and 30% respectively, then the sample must also have 60% boys and 30% girls.

NB: This method uses stratifying techniques to overcome the weakness of simple random.

Stratified random sampling technique:

Decide on a sample size,
Create strata based on sound criteria (e.g., tribe),
Decide on the number of representatives to pick from each stratum, and
Randomly carry out the sampling.

Example: Consider a school with a total of 1000 students, where 600 are boys and 400 are girls, and suppose that a researcher wants to select 100 of them for a research study.

The population has 600/1000 x 100 = 60% boys.
The population has 400/1000 x 100 = 40% girls.

The sample of 100 must, therefore, have 60% boys = 60/100 x 100 = 60 boys.

Similarly, the subgroup of girls will have 40% girls in the sample = 40 girls.

Randomly carry out 60 boys from the strata of boys and 40 girls from the girls’ strata to make a sample size of 100 needed by the researcher.

Systematic sampling:

This method relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list. However, to avoid bias, the starting element has to be randomly chosen.

The number in the population is divided by the required sample to get the interval.

Example: Suppose you want to sample 8 houses (sample size) from a street of 120 houses (population).

120/8 = 15 (interval), so every 15th house is chosen after a random starting point between 1 and 15. If the random starting point is 11, then the houses selected are; 11, 26, 41, 56, 71, 86, 101, and 116.

NB: This method is not purely random because some elements have more chances of being chosen than others. For example, in the above example, houses 1-15 have more chances of being selected than houses 16-120.

Systematic sampling is the best method for a big homogeneous population. It is easy to administer.

Summary of Systematic sampling process:

Define the population.
List the sample frame of all members in a certain order.
Determine the interval (population/sample size).
Systematically sample the population using the interval beginning with a random starting element.

Cluster sampling:

Cluster sampling is a type of sampling that involves dividing the population into groups (clusters). Then, one or more clusters are chosen at random (from all clusters, a random sample is made) and everyone within the chosen cluster is sampled.

NB:
1. The clusters are the ones that are randomly chosen.
2. All subjects in the random clusters are used for the study.

This method is useful when it is impossible to make a list of subjects scattered over a large area. Instead of making a list, a map of the area showing political, geographical, or other types of sub-division can be used in what we call cluster or area sampling.

Multi-stage sampling or multi-stage cluster sampling:

Using all the sample elements in all the selected clusters, as seen in cluster sampling above, may be prohibitively expensive or unnecessary. Under these circumstances, multi-stage cluster sampling becomes useful.

Instead of using all the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster; however, several levels of cluster selection are applied before the final sample elements are reached.

For example, household surveys begin by dividing metropolitan regions into ‘districts’ (first stage). The selected districts into blocks, and the blocks are chosen from each selected district (second stage).

Next, dwellings are listed within each selected block, and some of these dwellings are selected (third stage). This method makes it unnecessary to create a list of every dwelling in the region and necessary for only selected blocks.

Non-Random Sampling Methods

These are sampling methods where some elements of the population have no chance of selection; or where the probability of selection can’t be accurately determined. They are mainly used in qualitative studies.

Advantages of Non-random sampling methods:

They are cheap.
They have a less complicated approach to sampling.
They offer faster results.
They usually do not need to have a list of all members of the population.

Disadvantages of Non-random sampling:

These methods are not random, thus prone to human error and bias.
They are better applied when research findings are not generalized beyond the sample.
Statistical analysis of sample results is not appropriate when non-random sampling methods are used. For example, a researcher cannot use statistical methods to define a confidence interval around the sample mean.

Types of non-sampling methods:

Convenient Sampling:

Sampling depends on the convenience of the researcher. The sample is selected on the basis of how accessible, convenient, and cooperative a subject may be. For example, if there are ten parishes, one can choose two parishes that are nearest to one.

Purposive/Judgmental Sampling:

The sampling depends entirely on the researcher’s interest and judgment. For example, one can choose to select only nurses on duty.

Snowball Sampling Method:

The respondents to be included in the study are recommended by colleagues who know they can offer good data. Each person interviewed suggests the next respondent to interview.

Quota Sampling:

Is a non-probability version of stratified sampling. In quota sampling, a population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects from each segment based on a specified proportion.

Accidental Sampling:

The respondents included in the study are not deliberately selected, but the sample is incidental to prevailing circumstances. For example, if you stand in front of the university gate and interview every student who passes by.

NB:
i) Sampling errors arise from drawing wrong conclusions or generalizing issues based on findings drawn from a small sample. The errors are normally less when the sample size is big, and sampling is random.
ii) Non-probability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling error.

Sampling Designs & Sampling Techniques

I. PROBABILITY / QUANTITATIVE / RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling Techniques/ method	Description of the method
i) Simple Random Sampling (SRS)	This is a probability sampling method where each element or participant has a known and equal chance of being selected into the sample. Probability of selection = n / N where n is the sample size that was determined under subsection 3.4 N is the study population or accessible population determined under section 3.3 Note that; SRS procedure includes the use of Lottery method or using Random numbers. This is the most flexible method and simplest probability sampling technique.
ii) Systematic Sampling	This is a probability sampling method where a researcher obtains the respondents (his sample) by selecting every Kth subject of the study population. The first respondent is selected randomly from the rank 1 to K. In this case K is the skip interval implying that the researcher will choose every Kth item for example if K is 10 then the researcher will choose all the 10th element K = N / n Where K is the skip interval size N is the study population or number of units of accessible population n is the sample size. Procedure is You start by numbering the elements in the study population from 1 to N. Compute the size of the skip interval "k" from K = N/n Determine the random start, any participant between 1 and K in the population. Then draw the sample by choosing every Kth element.
iii) Stratified Sampling	This is a form of sampling where the researcher divides the population into groups which are internally homogenous or subsets that share similar characteristics but externally heterogeneous (Heterogeneity between subgroups). In this case the whole population is referred to as a strata while as the individual groups or mutually exclusive populations are referred to as stratum for example a researcher may choose to divide an organization according to departments, gender of staff, age group of staff or level of education. Procedure appropriate After the sub populations are generated, then a simple Random Sample can be taken within each stratum then the results from the investigation or study can be weighted by the researcher, then combined into appropriate population estimates. Stratified Random sampling is mainly used because; It increases efficiency (reduces cost, time & efforts) Increases precision estimates Enables the researcher to use different research methods and procedures in different stratums.
iv) Cluster Sampling	This is a form sampling where the population is divided into many sub-groups (known as clusters) that are internally heterogeneous but externally homogenous (Researcher ensures homogeneity between sub-groups). The researcher then randomly chooses several subgroups or clusters that he/she then studies or examines in-depth in order to make inferences about the whole population. Considering Kampala District as a population. While using cluster sampling, this can be divided into Divisions which include; Nakawa, Kawempe, Rubaga, Makindye and Central, those divisions are the clusters. A researcher may choose to study these divisions or first subject them to further sampling for example Makindye may be divided into two sub-clusters that include; Makindye East and Makindye west then the researcher randomly selects sub-clusters & examines the clusters in details to make inferences about the entire population. Note that; Cluster sampling is usually adopted because it's highly economic efficient (can be implemented with minimal costs). As compared to SRS which states that every participant has a chance of being selected into the sample and the chance is equal for all members, PPS sampling assumes that each member of a survey population has a chance of being selected in the sample but the chance is not the same for all units it rather depends on the size of each unit. Therefore, the bigger the size of the element, the higher the likelihood of being selected into the sample. Therefore the definition and measure of size must be accurate enough. There are two basic forms of PPS, these include Probability Proportionate to Size with replacement sampling (PPSWR) Probability Proportionate to Size without replacement sampling (PPSWOR).
v) Probability Proportional to Size sampling	This is a sampling method where the researcher used more than one sampling method in a single study. The researcher therefore uses sampling at different stages to progressively select smaller Sampling Units (SU's) until the elements of the sample have been selected through a random procedure Use of Multi-stage sampling is common when using; Stratified Sampling where the study area is divided into subgroups known as stratums which are further subjected to SRS while selecting elements or the subgroups or stratums which may be considered as Primary Sampling Units (PSU's) and further sub divided into Secondary Sampling Units (SSU's) which are now studied in detail. Cluster sampling where the study area may be divided into clusters, which are the Primary Sampling Unit (PSU's) and they may be further divided into small units or sub-clusters which are considered as the Secondary Sampling Units (SSU's) which are now examined or studied in detail.
vi) Multi-Stage Sampling	For Example, A researcher may be interested in studying the "Prevalence of Domestic violence among of households of Tororo district in Uganda. In this case Tororo District will be considered as the study area but then subdivided into Counties (This is first stage sampling) then the selected counties are further subdivided into Sub-counties (this is the second stage sampling) then the selected sub-counties are further sub-divided into Parishes/ Wards (this is third stage sampling), then further the selected parishes/ wards are sub-divided into Villages/ Cells (this is forth stage sampling) and finally the researcher may use systematic sampling or simple Random sampling to select households into his sample for an in-depth study or examination. That is referred to as Multi-stage sampling or Sequential sampling or Multi-phase sampling

II. NON-PROBABILITY / NON-RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling Techniques / method	Description of the method
i) Convenience sampling	This is a form of non-probability sampling also known as Accidental sampling or grab sampling or opportunity sampling. Convenient sampling is therefore a non-probability form of sampling where a researcher selects an element to be part of the study population as long as it is easily accessible to the researcher. Note that; Under convenience sampling the proximity of a respondent to the researcher is a key determining factor in sample selection. This form of sampling is the easiest to conduct, does not require a lot of expertise and as well the cheapest. Convenience sampling is the least reliable sampling method. Example of Convenience Sampling; Journalists or news reporters collecting opinions about a burning issue in Nairobi, they use intercept interviews where they find anyone within Nairobi city either on the Streets, Vendors, Shop keepers, Taxi drivers, Boda-boda riders, Pedestrian or those in their offices and immediately request you to respond to their interview. This method is unreliable in the sense that most informants don't have authority about the subject area since they are just grabbed or intercepted.
ii) Purposive sampling	This is a non- probability sampling method also known as Selective Sampling or judgmental sampling or subjective sampling. This is a form of sampling where the researcher selects elements or informants that he/she believes are appropriate or connected to the study. Note that; The researcher will base his/her section of elements on; The objectives of the study, Characteristics of the population, Pre-determined selection criterion, Researchers interest & Experience of the researcher. Example of Purposive or Selective Sampling; A researcher examining "Conflict and staff performance" may choose to interview the HR manager of an organization because the researcher assumes that the HR is more informed about the subject matter than any other person in the organization. Therefore, in this case selection is done purposively
iii) Snowball sampling	This is a non-probability sampling technique also known as chain-referral sampling or chain sampling or Referral sampling. This is a form of sampling where the researcher finds it difficult to identify elements of the study but endeavors to identify the first element and this subject or element recommends or refers the researcher to the next element who subsequently refers to the next respondent/ element and the sequence continues until the researcher gets the required information or reaches the saturation point (where no new ideas are being generated). Therefore the sample increases in a chain style. As the ball rolls down, it keeps increasing through picking up relevant elements. Examples of elements that are difficult to identify may include; A study where key informants are Professors in Botany, Professors Zoology or even in Professors Statistics you may need to first identify one professor and then have him or her lead you to subsequent professors since they tend to know each other. A study where key informants of interest are Thieves, Prostitutes, Homosexuals & Lesbians among others.
iv) Quota sampling	This is almost the same as stratified sampling but the difference is that in this case there is no randomization. Note that; The above cases among others are very difficult to identify and you need to win the confidence of one to lead you to another. Therefore quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the population is divided into subgroups that are internally homogenous. These sub-groups are then studied and inferences then made. For example; If the study population is the MBA 15 class, the researcher may choose to have a sub-cohort / group of female and another for male or have marrieds and un married students or working and non-working students, in this case the researcher will not use any statistical method while subdividing the population. Note that; The pertinent issue is that, these cohorts must be internally homogenous (With common characteristics) and arrived at using non-randomization technique

These include;

Probability or Random or Quantitative sampling design
Non-probability or Non-Random or Qualitative sampling design.

These designs can be used differently but in a study where the research approach is mixed methods then the researcher may triangulate both probability and non-probability sampling design.

REASONS WHY YOU SHOULD USE SAMPLING THAN A CENSUS

In academic research it's usually a university policy that binds a student/researcher to use sampling as compared to a census.
Sampling is more economical, using a sample requires little resources than a census. Resources in form of Materials, Technology, Time & Finances among other.
Sampling leads to increased coverage, As compared to a census, sampling enables the researcher to cover a greater scope in terms of content and geographical scope.
Results of sampling are considered to be more reliable and accurate, while conducting a census you may need to employ a lot of research assistants, data entrants & data analysts which compromises quality as some of these may not be experienced in the field while as you need very few but experienced staff for a sample survey.
Sampling yields timely results, as compared to a census which may even take more than a year, a sample survey provides results urgently.
Sampling promotes easy accessibility, since not all elements are always accessible. Remember you always have a target population and the accessible population, therefore this gives sampling an advantage over a census which ignores issues of inaccessibility of some elements of the population.
Sampling data is usually of a better quality than census data
Destructive or contaminative nature of many populations. Among other reasons.
Greater speed of data collection, a researcher can easily collect all the required data in a sample than in a census.
It's easy to analyze data from a sample than that of a census since there is less data in samples than a census; therefore sampling reduces on the likelihood of non-sampling errors.

Sampling Errors

Sampling errors are the unavoidable differences between a sample's calculated statistics (e.g., mean, proportion) and the true, unknown population parameters, occurring simply because a subset rather than the entire population is measured. These, along with non-sampling errors, form total survey error. Increasing sample size reduces this error.

Causes: Primarily due to random variations in selecting samples ("luck of the draw") or, in some cases, biased selection methods.

Types:

Population Specification Error: Incorrectly defining the population for the study.
Sampling Frame Error: Using an inaccurate or incomplete list of the population (e.g., using a phone book that excludes unlisted numbers).
Selection Error (Sample Bias): Instances where the sample is not representative of the population, such as using convenience sampling.
Sample Size Error: Samples that are too small to yield accurate, reliable data.
Random Error: A wrong result due to chance. This can be overcome by increasing the sample size.
Systemic Error: A wrong result due to bias.

Calculation: The margin of error (a common, practical measure of sampling error) is calculated by multiplying the standard error by the z-score (e.g. for a 95% confidence level).

Reduction: To minimize, increase the sample size and ensure the sampling method is truly random or representative.

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