First Aid

First aid is the immediate, temporary care given to a person who is suddenly injured or taken ill, using available materials, before professional medical treatment can be obtained.

As a nursing student, when asked to define First Aid in an exam, ensure you include all these elements for full marks:

• Initial/temporary: It is not a substitute for definitive medical care; it bridges the critical gap until professional help arrives.
• Given by a trained person (first aider): While anyone can help, a qualified first aider is formally trained by a recognized institution (e.g., Uganda Red Cross Society, St. John Ambulance).
• Uses available materials: Improvisation is highly allowed and expected (e.g., using a clean shirt as a pressure dressing or a strong stick as a splint).
• Given at the scene: Wherever the casualty is found (on the roadside, at home, or in the workplace).
• Aimed at the 3 Ps: Preserve life, Prevent worsening (further harm/illness or injury), and Promote recovery.

The aims of First Aid are built strictly on the 3 Ps. Let us break them down in detail.

Your primary goal is to keep the casualty alive until medical help arrives. This is achieved through ensuring ABC:

• A – Airway: Make sure the airway is OPEN. If the casualty is unconscious, the tongue often falls back and blocks the airway. Use the head-tilt chin-lift maneuver to open the trachea. Clear any visible obstruction (like food, vomit, or broken teeth).
• B – Breathing: Check for breathing using your senses:
  • LOOK: For chest/abdominal rising and falling movements.
  • LISTEN: For breath sounds at the casualty's mouth.
  • FEEL: For breath on your cheek.
  • Action: If not breathing, commence artificial respiration (mouth-to-mouth or using an Ambu bag).
• C – Circulation: Check blood flow and perfusion. Feel for a pulse (check the carotid artery in adults, and the brachial artery in infants). Also, check the skin colour for critical signs:
  • Cyanosis: Bluish discoloration, especially on the lips/tongue, indicating a severe lack of oxygen.
  • Jaundice: Yellow discoloration of the skin and sclera (eyes), indicating liver issues.
  • Pallor: Extreme paleness/whitish skin indicating poor blood flow, shock, or severe anaemia.
  • Action: If there is no pulse/no circulation, start CPR immediately. Control any life-threatening severe bleeding. Treat for shock by elevating the legs if appropriate.

Help the casualty recover and prevent their condition from deteriorating while waiting for the ambulance:

• Apply splints for suspected fractures. (Preventing bone movement stops the sharp bone edges from causing further internal tissue/nerve damage).
• Apply sterile dressings to wounds to stop bleeding and prevent infection.
• Place the casualty in the recovery position (lateral recumbent). This is crucial because it protects the airway in an unconscious, breathing casualty by allowing vomit/fluids to drain out, preventing fatal choking.

Stop the injury or illness from getting worse before reaching the hospital:

• Maintain correct body alignment, especially with a suspected spinal injury – do not move them unnecessarily! Bending a broken spine can paralyze or kill the casualty.
• Prevent exposure. Keep them warm using blankets to prevent hypothermia, which heavily worsens shock.
• Remove danger from the casualty, or carefully remove the casualty from danger (only if it is safe for you to do so).
• Arrange swift transportation/referral to a hospital for definitive care.

If asked to write an essay on the importance of First Aid, expand on these 8 key points:

1. Saves lives: Directly achieves the preservation of life through ABC management.
2. Prevents the condition from worsening: Stopping bleeding keeps the patient stable.
3. Promotes faster recovery: Clean dressings prevent deadly infections later.
4. Reduces pain and suffering: Proper splinting stops the agony of broken bones grinding together.
5. Prevents permanent disability: Correct handling of spinal injuries ensures the patient can walk again.
6. Provides psychological comfort: Reassuring the casualty and panicking relatives calms the situation.
7. Bridges the gap: Covers the crucial time between the injury happening and reaching professional medical care.
8. Mass casualty management: Allows for Triage, ensuring the maximum number of lives are saved with limited resources.

Accurate assessment of any casualty rests solidly on 3 pillars. This is how you figure out what is wrong:

1. HISTORY TAKING:

   Gathering information about the injury/illness: what exactly happened, when it happened, where, and what interventions have been done so far. You get this directly from the casualty (if conscious) OR from bystanders (if the casualty is unconscious).

   In your secondary survey, use the AMPLE history mnemonic:

   • A – Allergy: Are they allergic to any drugs (like Penicillin) or foods?
   • M – Medication: Are they currently taking any medicines? (e.g., insulin, blood thinners).
   • P – Past medical history: Do they have asthma, epilepsy, or a heart condition?
   • L – Last meal: When did they last eat or drink? (Crucial if they need emergency surgery/anaesthesia).
   • E – Events: What events led up to the incident? (e.g., "He grabbed his chest, then fell").
2. SIGNS (Objective):

   Signs are what YOU observe/find as the trained first aider. They are objective facts you can physically verify.

   Mnemonic: Signs = SEEN (Objective, observable).

   Examples: Active bleeding, a swollen ankle, visible bone deformity, cyanosis (blue lips), dilated pupils, smelling alcohol on their breath, or watching them vomit.

3. SYMPTOMS (Subjective):

   Symptoms are what the CASUALTY complains of. You cannot see a symptom; you must rely on what they tell you.

   Mnemonic: Symptoms = SAID (Subjective, complained).

   Examples: "My chest hurts" (Pain), "I feel like vomiting" (Nausea), thirst, dizziness, a headache, or feeling short of breath.

1. Emergency assessment: Find out the problem via history, observation, and a head-to-toe physical examination. This phase also ensures the safety of the first aider.
2. Diagnosis: Identify the casualty's specific problem from your assessment findings (e.g., you see heavy bleeding ➔ Diagnosis: Severe Haemorrhage).
3. Immediate treatment: Give the appropriate first aid for the identified problem (e.g., applying a tight pressure dressing to stop the bleeding).
4. Referral/Transport: Arrange transfer to the nearest hospital. The method of transport depends entirely on the nature and severity of the injury (e.g., suspected spinal injury requires a rigid stretcher and ambulance, not a boda-boda).

• History taking: Asking AMPLE questions.
• Observation: Looking around the scene for clues (e.g., empty poison bottles, live wires) and looking at the casualty's general state.
• Physical examination: A careful, systematic head-to-toe check for hidden injuries.

Why not just start treating immediately? Because assessing first:

• Protects you and bystanders: Identifies hidden scene dangers (live electrical wires, fire, speeding traffic, toxic gases).
• Prioritizes life-threats: Identifies conditions in order of priority (ABC).
• Leads to correct diagnosis: Helps collect accurate signs and symptoms.
• Forms the basis of Triage: In mass casualties, assessment tells you who needs the doctor first.
• Prevents harm: Stops you from giving inappropriate treatment (e.g., giving water to a patient needing surgery).

Memorize this list. As a certificate student, knowing these rules guides your entire approach to emergency care:

1. Be calm and act quickly but carefully: Panic spreads fast and causes deadly mistakes.
2. Assess the scene first: Use history, observation, and physical exam. Do not rush in blindly.
3. Ensure safety (Danger first!): For yourself, the casualty, and bystanders. You absolutely cannot help if you become a second casualty yourself.
4. Call for help early: Call bystanders to assist. Call 999/112 (Uganda national emergency line) or the Uganda Red Cross toll-free at 0800 211 088 for an ambulance.
5. Follow the ABC / DRABC approach: Treat life threats strictly in order of priority.
6. Reassure the casualty and bystanders constantly: Talk calmly; severe anxiety heavily worsens clinical shock.
7. Preserve life ➔ promote recovery ➔ prevent complications: Always follow the 3 Ps.
8. Do no further harm: Avoid unnecessary movement (especially with suspected fractures or spinal injury). Never give food or drink to a casualty who may need emergency surgery or anaesthesia.
9. Keep the casualty warm: Cover them with a blanket or sheet. This prevents hypothermia and combats shock.
10. Improvise when equipment is lacking: Being resourceful saves lives (e.g., use clean torn clothing as bandages, or clean plastic bags over your hands if you have no gloves).
11. Arrange transport/referral: To the nearest appropriate hospital after giving first aid.
12. Hand over properly to medical personnel: Give a clear verbal report: what happened, what you found, what you did, and how the casualty responded.
13. Document (crucial for nurses): Write down the time of the incident, findings, interventions, and the casualty's response.

Providing first aid involves interacting with people in vulnerable states. You must understand your legal and ethical boundaries to protect both the patient and yourself from lawsuits.

You cannot touch a person without their permission. There are three types of situations:

• Expressed consent: The casualty is conscious, alert, and agrees to treatment. Always ask first: "My name is Mary, I am a nurse/trained first aider. Can I help you?"
• Implied consent: The casualty is unconscious or unresponsive. In this case, the law assumes consent (a reasonable person would want their life saved). It is also implied when any delay would risk their life.
• Refusal of care: A conscious adult of sound mind has the legal right to refuse your help. If they say no, respect it! Do not force them. Instead, explain the severe risks of refusing, stay near them, and call for professional help.
• Children: Get consent from a parent or guardian if they are present. If the situation is life-threatening and no guardian is around, treat the child immediately under implied consent.

Once you voluntarily start giving first aid, you establish a "Duty of Care." You must not leave the casualty until:

• A rescuer of equal or higher ability (like a doctor or paramedic) takes over, OR
• The scene becomes too dangerous/unsafe for you to continue, OR
• The casualty is formally handed over to EMS/medical personnel.

Leaving halfway without a valid reason is called Abandonment, and you can be sued for it.

Negligence means failing to provide a standard of care, resulting in harm. Understand the three levels:

• Ordinary negligence: Honest mistakes a reasonable person might make under extreme pressure (e.g., accidentally cracking a brittle rib while performing life-saving CPR). The law generally protects you here.
• Gross negligence: Reckless, conscious disregard for safety. (e.g., giving powerful drugs beyond your training level, dragging a casualty with a broken spine by the legs, or performing unnecessary surgical procedures). The law will NOT protect you here.
• Willful misconduct: Intentionally causing harm to the casualty. Never protected.

This is a legal principle protecting people who voluntarily give reasonable emergency care in good faith, without expecting payment, and within their level of training.

• Ugandan Context: In Uganda (and Africa generally), there is NO formal, written Good Samaritan statute passed by parliament. However, protection comes from common-sense common law principles: act in good faith, within your training, and do not charge money.
• As a nurse in Uganda: Volunteer care done carefully and within your scope of practice is highly defensible in court. Reckless care, or demanding payment at the scene, destroys your protection.
• Never accept payment for first aid at the roadside scene.
• Do not perform procedures beyond your certificate training (e.g., an untrained student trying to cut open a throat for a surgical airway = gross negligence).

Keep all information about the casualty totally private. Do not discuss their medical condition, HIV status, or cause of injury with curious onlookers, the media, or post photos on social media! Share medical information ONLY with the ambulance or hospital team taking over.

• Right to privacy/dignity: Shield the casualty from curious onlookers. Expose only the specific body area being treated. Respect cultural norms and modesty (especially for female casualties).
• Honesty: Do not lie or promise outcomes you cannot guarantee (e.g., never say, "You will be completely fine"). Instead, reassure them honestly: "Help is coming, and you are being cared for."
• Non-maleficence & Beneficence: The core medical ethics: Do good, and avoid doing harm.
• Reporting requirements: In Uganda, certain cases MUST be reported to the police (e.g., Road traffic accidents, assault, gunshot wounds, suspected child abuse). Document accurately and avoid altering the crime scene more than is necessary to save the life.

As a nurse, your memory is not enough; you must write it down. Record the exact time of the incident, time of arrival, condition found (vital signs), the AMPLE history, specific first aid given, how the casualty responded, the time and mode of transport, destination, and who you handed the patient over to. Accurate records protect both you and the casualty legally.

Definition: The Chain of Survival is a rapid sequence of critical actions that must occur immediately after a sudden cardiac arrest to maximize the patient's chance of survival. The concept is that "the chain is only as strong as its weakest link."

1. Early recognition of cardiac arrest & activation of EMS: Recognize that the patient is unresponsive with no normal breathing. Immediately call for help (999/112, or Uganda Red Cross ambulance 0800 211 088).
2. Early CPR: High-quality chest compressions to keep blood flowing to the brain. (Rate of 100–120 compressions per minute, depth of 5–6 cm in adults, allowing full chest recoil, with minimal interruptions).
3. Early defibrillation: Using an Automated External Defibrillator (AED) to shock the heart as soon as it is available. Survival drops by about 10% for every minute the shock is delayed!
4. Advanced resuscitation: Interventions provided by EMS paramedics or the hospital team (advanced airway management, IV drugs, ECG monitoring).
5. Post-cardiac arrest care: Specialized ICU care, targeted temperature management (cooling the brain), and treating the underlying cause of the arrest.
6. Recovery: Long-term rehabilitation, physical/cognitive/psychological support, and follow-up care.

The American Heart Association (AHA) continuously updates these guidelines. For 2025, you must know these changes:

• The AHA replaced the old four separate chains (adult/paediatric, in/out-of-hospital) with ONE unified 6-link chain of survival applicable to all ages and settings.
• There is a massive new emphasis on prevention and preparedness as a surrounding concept before the arrest even happens.
• Choking updates: Formal guidance requires 5 back blows alternating with 5 abdominal thrusts for adults. For infants: 5 back blows alternating with 5 chest thrusts.
• Opioid overdose updates: If an overdose is suspected, administer Naloxone + commence CPR immediately.
• Compression rules: The rate is strictly 100–120/minute for ALL ages. For adults, depth must be at least 5 cm, but avoid going deeper than 6 cm.
• "Rescue breaths" are now simply called "breaths". Telecommunicator CPR (dispatcher-assisted CPR over the phone) is now given Class 1 priority.

Different people at the scene have different responsibilities. You must distinguish between what a basic first aider does, what a trained nurse does, and what a bystander does.

• Assess the scene and ensure safety (Danger first).
• Carry out the primary survey (DRABC) and secondary survey.
• Give immediate life-saving care (ABC, CPR, bleeding control, placing in recovery position).
• Call and arrange for professional help and transport.
• Reassure and comfort the casualty and their relatives.
• Prevent further injury (immobilization, warmth, stopping unnecessary movement).
• Hand over the casualty with a clear verbal report to the EMS/medical team.

As a nursing student, your scope of practice is much wider than a basic first aider. If an exam asks for YOUR role, include these 12 clinical points:

1. Triage: Sort casualties accurately in mass emergencies to prioritize life threats.
2. Advanced Assessment: Conduct rapid primary surveys (DRABC), take accurate vital signs, and perform a thorough secondary head-to-toe survey using SAMPLE history.
3. Life Support: Perform high-quality CPR, artificial ventilation (using an Ambu bag if available), advanced bleeding control, and clinical shock management.
4. Wound Care: Professional cleaning, sterile dressing, bandaging, and splinting.
5. Drug Administration: Administer emergency drugs within your legal scope and protocols (e.g., Adrenaline for anaphylaxis, Aspirin for suspected cardiac chest pain, oral Glucose for severe hypoglycaemia).
6. Airway Management: Positioning, using mechanical suction, and inserting airway adjuncts (e.g., Guedel airway) within your scope.
7. Coordination: Mobilize bystanders, communicate professionally with EMS/doctors, and arrange formal referral and transport.
8. Clinical Documentation: Write an accurate, legal record of findings, interventions, and patient response.
9. Communication & Psychosocial Support: Counsel the casualty and family, communicate with the community, and provide psychological debriefing after traumatic events.
10. Health Education & Prevention: Teach first aid in the community and schools, advocating for emergency preparedness (like having first aid kits).
11. Infection Prevention: Strictly use standard precautions and safe handling of sharps/blood to prevent HIV/Hepatitis transmission at the scene.
12. Follow-up Care: Continued monitoring of vital signs during transport, post-emergency care, and completing referral paperwork.

Definition: A first aider is a person trained by a recognised institution and formally qualified to give first aid.

To be effective in an emergency, a first aider must possess these specific traits (expand on each point in an essay):

1. Knowledgeable & Skilled: Must be properly trained, competent in first aid techniques, and keep their skills up to date.
2. Observant / Critical: Must notice subtle, critical signs that others miss (e.g., pale skin color, abnormal breathing patterns, unequal pupils, or the smell of poison/alcohol).
3. Confidential: Must strictly keep the casualty's medical and personal information private, sharing it only with doctors.
4. Trustworthy & Honest: Must safeguard the casualty's property (wallets, phones) and return it safely. Must be completely honest in their medical reports.
5. Resourceful & Improvisative: Must be able to think outside the box and use available materials when medical supplies run out (e.g., using clean polythene bags as gloves, or strong sticks and umbrellas as splints).
6. Courageous & Brave: Must act decisively despite unpleasant sights, massive blood, or danger (after ensuring reasonable safety protocols).
7. Empathetic & Compassionate: Must put themselves in the casualty's shoes, offering genuine hope, and calming their deep fears.
8. Calm & Composed: Must think clearly and systematically under massive pressure. They do not panic, because panic spreads to the casualty.
9. Patient: Must persist with long, exhausting resuscitation efforts (like continuous CPR) without giving up too soon.
10. Physically Fit: Performing CPR, lifting heavy patients, and carrying them to safety requires significant physical strength and stamina.
11. Good Communicator: Must give clear, authoritative instructions to bystanders, hand over effectively to paramedics, and provide soothing reassurance to the casualty.

1. Reach accident spot quickly. This will help to save life of the casualty.
2. Shout for help. Organize labour or onlookers or bystanders to help in any possible way. Make sure there are enough people to help you.
3. Be calm, methodical and quick. By doing so, you can minimize the pain and the effect of the injuries, which may save life. Handling casualty clumsily will make the final recovery difficult.
4. Remove the casualty from danger or danger from casualty.
5. Look for the following:
   • Is there failure of breathing?
   • Is there severe bleeding?
   • Is the shock high or severe? Is there any signs/ symptoms of shock?
6. Attend to these and then treat easily observable injuries.
7. Start artificial respiration, if the casualty is not breathing, it must begin at once, as every second gained is helpful.
8. Stop bleeding by pressing on the pressure point, press firmly on the bleeding area for at least a few minutes (minimum 3 minutes) by watch – take help if available.
9. Treat shock.
10. Avoid handling casualty unnecessarily. Note: Never give anything by mouth to the patient who is unconscious.
11. Use the first aid articles if available (All trains, railway stations, Lorries and buses keep first aid box). Make use of material so obtained. In case, first aid box is not available, improvise and make use of available resources.
12. Assess the situation sensibly in regard to medical aid treatment which may be needed.
13. Make a written note on the general condition and your findings about the casualty.
14. Inspect the area: Take the casualty away from live wire, fallen walls, beams, fire, broken gas chamber, moving machinery, etc. to safer place.
15. Clear the crowd with polite words. Do not allow people to crowd around the casualty as the casualty needs fresh air. If a doctor is present, he will guide you. Any other first aider should be asked to help, otherwise take the assistance of by standers by giving them correct instructions.
16. Note the weather: If it is not raining, too hot or cold, treat in open, otherwise move the casualty into an airy room. If no suitable house or shelter is available nearby, it’s best to protect the casualty with an umbrella or a sheet of cloth or even a newspaper.
17. Reassure the casualty by soft words and encourage talking. This will help the casualty to take things lightly and lie quietly. This will help in recovery.
18. Arrange for dispatch of the casualty to the care of a doctor or to a nearby hospital. At the same time inform relatives as to where the casualty is being taken to.
19. Do not attempt too much. You are only a first aider, give minimum assistance so that condition does not become worse and life can be saved.

• Do not forget that you are not a doctor hence, do not attempt to overdo things.
• Do not handle the victim unnecessarily as that condition may worsen.
• Do not expose the casualty unnecessarily.
• Do not open any wounds / dressing, if bandaged previously by anybody.
• Do not move any fracture case without putting proper splints.
• Do not tie tourniquet at bleeding site and forget about it.
• Attend to casualty as per priority.
• Attend to children and women first.
• Ensure self – safety and security before jumping into heroic attempts to save casualty.
• Follow precautions in handling communicable / infectious cases.
• Never declare any casualty dead, it is that doctor’s job.

The first aider must always:

1. Respond quickly to calls for assistance, the saving of a life may depend on promptness of action.
2. Adopt a calm and methodical approach to the casualty, quick and confident examination and treatment will relieve pain and distress, lessen the effect of injury and may save life. Time spent on long and elaborate examination of a casualty may be time lost in his ultimate recovery.
3. Treat obvious injuries and conditions endangering life such as failure of breathing, severe shock, before making a complete diagnosis.
4. Take first aid material. If this is immediately available. If standard equipment is not available the first aider must depend on material to hand which will have to be provided as required.
5. Study the surroundings carefully. These may influence the action to be taken and therefore require careful consideration for example:
   • Danger: From falling building, moving machinery, electric current, fire, poisonous gases and similar hazards.
   • Weather: If the accident occurs out of doors, the casualty may be treated in the open if the weather is fine, if the weather is bad, he must be removed to shelter as soon as is reasonably possible.
   • Shelter: Note houses and buildings near at hand, whether occupied or unoccupied and whether likely to be particularly useful, such as a chemist’s shop, otherwise, temporary shelter may be provided by means of umbrellas, rugs and the like.
   • Assistance: Crowds must be tactfully controlled. If a doctor is present, work under his direction. If not, ask if anyone with knowledge of first aid is present. If neither is available make use of bystanders to the best advantage.
6. Reassure the casualty by speaking encouragingly to him. Warm him to be still and tell him that he is in trained hands.

• Examination and Diagnosis: This is taking account of the casualty‘s history and that of incident, symptoms, signs and level of responsiveness.
• History: This is the full story of how the incident occurred or the illness began, and should be taken directly from the casualty and a responsible bystander wherever possible.
  Never hurry the casualty and remember to pass on all information you have obtained when skilled help arrives.
• Symptoms: These are sensations that the casualty feels and describes to you the most useful of these is pain. If the casualty is unconscious or unreliable because dazed (confused) or in shock, their diagnosis cannot be based on symptoms but has to be based on information obtained from bystanders and signs.
• Sign: These are details ascertained by you using your senses – sight, touch, hearing and smell. These may be signs of injury such as: bleeding, swelling, deformity, or signs of illness such as raised temperature and rapid or regular pulse.

1. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (every second).
2. Control bleeding.
3. Treat shock and special care of unconscious cases.
4. Fracture immobilization.
5. Burn cover, with clean washed or dressing and treat shock.
6. Eye, nose and ear injuries.
7. Multiple superficial injuries.
8. Transportation.

1. Gain access to the patient in easiest and safest way.
2. Observe the accidents scene and assess the situation.
3. If necessary, direct others to direct traffic keep bystanders at a safe distance and make essential telephone calls. Turn off all engines that may be still running.
4. To find out whether is unconscious, conscious alive dead.
5. Identify the disease or condition from which the casualty is suffering.
6. Give immediate, appropriate and treatment considering priority of the first aid measures. Such as first priority will be of restoration of breathing and circulation, while second will be stopping the bleeding.
7. Should bear in mind that a casualty may have more than one injury and that some casualties will require more urgent attention than others.
8. Arranging without delay for shifting of the casualty to a doctor, hospital or home according to the condition in such a manner that injury is not complicated or the victim is not subjected to unnecessary discomfort.
9. Keeping the record of the patient and of incidence, addresses and witness.
10. Once a first aider has voluntarily started care, he should not leave the scene, or stop the care until a qualified and responsible person relieves him.
11. To report your observations to those taking over care of the casualty and to give further assistance if required.
12. To prevent cross infection between yourself and casualty as much as possible.

• The first aider should be observant with the rules or objectives of first aid and act quickly and vigilantly.
• He should inspire confidence in the patient and others closely related to the patient.
• To save lives, there are three conditions that call for first aid: stoppage of breathing, severe bleeding and shock.
• If breathing movements are not proper, the lips, tongue and finger nails become blue, in such a situation, artificial respiration should be started immediately.
• If there is heavy bleeding: It may be from wounds through one or more large vessels. In this condition, pressure should be applied directly over the wound. For this, a clean handkerchief or a pad may be kept on the wound and pressed firmly with one or both hands, then apply affirm bandage.
• The important factor to be attended immediately is shock. Shock accompanies severe injury or emotional disturbance. Cold and clammy skin, beads of perspiration on the fore head and palms. Pale face, nausea and vomiting are the common symptoms of shock.

1. Control the scene of accident.
2. Gain access to the patient.
3. Evaluate the scene in terms of safety and possible cause of accident.
4. Gather information from patient and bystanders.
5. Determine vital signs (pulse, breathing, skin, temperature).
6. Determine diagnostic signs and relate those to possible injuries or sudden illnesses that require emergency care.
7. Perform the necessary ABC’S of emergency care:
   • Open air way.
   • Breathing (breathlessness - provide artificial ventilation).
   • Circulation (pulseless - provide one and two rescuer cardiopulmonary resuscitation).
   • Bleeding control (haemorrhage controlled by direct pressure and elevation, pressure points and tourniquets).
8. Diagnosis and care for shock.
9. Diagnosis and care for open and closed fractures, sprains (tearing of ligaments), strains (muscle injured by overstretching) and dislocations, including cold treatment and basic splinting techniques.
10. Diagnosis and care for soft tissue and internal injuries including basic dressing and bandaging techniques.
11. Detect and care for poisoning including alcohol and drug abuse.
12. Diagnosis and care for heart attack, stroke, diabetes, coma, insulin shock, and epileptic or other seizures.
13. Diagnosis and care for facial injuries, head injuries, neck and spinal injuries and chest injuries including fracture ribs and penetrating chest wounds.
14. Diagnosis and care for burns and smoke inhalation.
15. Diagnosis and care for exposure to heat and cold, which includes heat exhaustion, heat cramps, heat stroke, hypothermia and frostbite.
16. Assist in child birth and care of the new born.
17. Psychological and proper emergency care to victims of crisis and disasters.
18. Perform proper transformation techniques.